WRITING THE RESEARCH REPORT AND THE POLITICS OF SOCIAL RESEARCHthe research participants of the government of Chile
about the project. Once Chileans discovered it, they
asked that it end and that all researchers leave.^26
By the late 1960s and 1970s, freedom to con-
duct research expanded, restrictions on cross-cultural
researchers were relaxed, and the government
classified fewer documents. The U.S. Congress
passed the Freedom of Information Act(FOIA) in
1966 and strengthened it in 1974. The law opened
many government documents to scholars and mem-
bers of the public if they filed requests with the
proper government agencies. The trend toward
openness and freedom of research lasted for about
fifteen years, then reversed in the 1980s.
By the late 1980s the U.S. federal government
expanded the range of classified documents and re-
duced publicly available information.^27 The gov-
ernment broadened its definition of national
security, expanded the system for classifying gov-
ernment documents, and imposed new limits on re-
search into “sensitive areas” even if no government
agency or funds were involved. New rules made
classifying information and documents already in
the public domain easier. In addition, military and
security officials could restrict foreign researchers
from attending scholarly meetings or visiting U.S.
classrooms, libraries, and research centers.^28
In the cold war era, CIA undercover agents
often posed as social researchers to find informa-
tion in foreign nations. Until 1986, the CIA had a
blanket rule barring researchers from disclosing
CIA sponsorship of their research. At that time, the
rule was loosened to cover only cases about which
the CIA believed such disclosure could harm the
United States. For example, a Harvard professor had
a contract with the CIA not to reveal that the agency
paid for the research for a scholarly book on U.S.
foreign policy.^29
Cross-national research involves unique issues.
The scientific community condemns the use of
undercover agents in the guise of researchers and
the practice of hiding the source of funding for such
research. Ethical guidelines for conduct in other
nations specify the cooperation with host officials,
the protection of research participants, and the re-
quirement to leave information in the host nation.
Nevertheless, a researcher may find interference
from his-her own government, or protecting the
basic human rights of the people being studied in a
nondemocratic society may lead him or her to hide
information from the host government involved.^30
After the cold war, worldwide social re-
searchers had increased independence and aca-
demic freedom to study various societies. However,
political changes in the United States that have oc-
curred since the September 11, 2001, terrorist at-
tacks may produce more government monitoring
and influence over cross-national research.Indirect Limits through Control over Research
Funding.The most common way that politics
shapes social research is through control over funds
for research. This is similar to the issues involved in
sponsored research. Large-scale research projects
can be expensive, costing as much as $1 million,
and the funds often come from private sources or
governments.
Most officials recognize that an open and
autonomous social scientific community is the
best path to unbiased, valid knowledge. The peer-
review process promotes autonomous research. Re-
searchers submit proposals to a government agency
for funds to conduct research. Peer researchers eval-
uate the proposal on a proposal’s scientific merit for
the government agency. Although the government
funds most basic research, researchers at many col-
leges, universities, and research centers across the
nation conduct the research.
The sums for social research are tiny compared
with the amounts that large corporations spend on
research or with government funding of other ac-
tivities. In the United States, most social research
funding comes from the federal government, with
university and private foundations funding projects
that are limited in amount, scope, and number. Thus,
for large projects, researchers go to the government
for funds.
Prior to World War II in the United States, a few
private foundations set up by wealthy families
(Carnegie, Ford, Rockefeller, and Sage) funded most
social research. The foundations sought information
about the serious social problems that appeared with
early industrialism. They also wanted to discourage
links between radicals and social researchers and to