Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches

WHAT ARE THE MAJOR TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH?

research). Survey researchuses a written ques-
tionnaire or formal interview to gather information
on the backgrounds, behaviors, beliefs, or attitudes
of a large number of people. Usually, we ask a large
number of people (100 to 5,000) dozens of ques-
tions in a short time frame. The survey by Engell
and Tanby (2007) on religious belief and racial in-
equality had gathered data in 30-minute-long tele-
phone interviews with 2,081 people in the fall of

2003. Unlike an experiment, we do not manipulate
      a situation or condition to see how people react; we
      only carefully record answers from many people
      who have been asked the same questions. Often we
      select the people for a survey using a random
      sampling technique. This allows us to generalize in-
      formation legitimately from a few people (e.g.,
      1,000) to many more (e.g., several million). We usu-
      ally present survey data in charts, graphs, or tables
      and analyze them with statistics. Most frequently,
      we use surveys in descriptive research, sometimes
      in explanatory research, and only rarely in ex-
      ploratory research.

Nonreactive Research.In experimental and sur-
vey research, we actively engage the people we
study by creating experimental conditions or di-
rectly asking questions. These are called reactive
methods because a research participant could react
in some way because he or she is aware of being
in a study. Other quantitative research is called
nonreactive researchbecause the study partici-
pants are not aware that information about them is
part of a study. Four types of nonreactive studies are
unobtrusive research, existing statistical informa-
tion, content analysis, and secondary data analysis.
Secondary data analysisis the statistical analysis of
quantitative data that were previously collected and
stored (often originally from a survey). Here we
briefly consider two types of nonreactive research:
content analysis and existing statistical information.

Content Analysis.Content analysisis a technique

for examining the content or information and

symbols contained in written documents or other

communication media (e.g., photographs, movies,

song lyrics, advertisements). To conduct a content

analysis, we identify a body of material to analyze

(e.g., school textbooks, television programs, news-

paper articles) and then create a system for record-

ing specific aspects of its content. The system might

include counting how often certain words or themes

appear. After we systematically record what we

find, we analyze it, often using graphs or charts.

Content analysis is a nonreactive method because

the creators of the content didn’t know whether any-

one would analyze it. Content analysis lets us dis-

cover and document specific features in the content

of a large amount of material that might otherwise

go unnoticed. We most frequently use content

analysis for descriptive purposes, but exploratory or

explanatory studies are also possible (see Example

Study Box 11, Content Analysis).

Existing Statistics.Using existing statistics

research, we locate a source of previously collected

information, often in the form of official government

reports. We then reorganize the information in new

ways to address a research question. Locating the

sources and verifying their quality can be time con-

suming. Frequently, we do not know whether the

needed information is available when we begin a

study. We can use existing statistics research for ex-

ploratory, descriptive, or explanatory purposes but

most frequently for descriptive research.

Nonreactive research Research methods in which

people are not aware of being studied.

Existing statistics research Research in which one

reexamines and statistically analyzes quantitative data

that have been gathered by government agencies or

other organizations.

Content analysis Research in which the content of a

communication medium is systematically recorded

and analyzed.

Survey research Quantitative research in which the

researcher systematically asks a large number of

people the same questions and then records their

answers.