Problems with Religion and Politics 383form etc.) are so different from the faith of the castes and statutes. -1 see the noble old
man, just like his friend Solon (I think he was indeed), who once stood before his
rulers, and was asked the question: "What is it that makes you so brave?" He answered
smilingly: "Meine Herren, it is my age."^213
In August ofthat year Kant had offered the essay "Toward Perpetual Peace:
A Philosophical Project" for publication to Nicolovius in Königsberg.^214
The book appeared at Michaelmas. One of the occasions for the book was
the withdrawal of Frederick William II from the War of the First Coalition
in March of 1795. Another occasion was a long-standing dispute about the
notion of perpetual peace, going back to 1713. Kant joined the ranks of
Leibniz, Voltaire, Frederick the Great, and Rousseau in addressing this is¬
sue. He also was explicating his political and legal theory.^215
Kant was well aware of the problems this work might cause him, and he
introduced the essay with a "little saving clause" (clausula salvatoris). The
publicly expressed opinions of a mere "theoretical politician" and "aca¬
demic" could not be dangerous to the state, since the "worldly-wise states¬
man" or practical politician, who looks down on the mere theoretician in
any case, had no temptation and was under no obligation to pay attention
to him.
The essay presents an argument for the thesis that a peaceful global or¬
der presupposes cosmopolitan law (Weltbürgerrecht). This cosmopolitan
law should replace the classical law among nations (Völkerrecht) with one
that states the rights of human beings as citizens of the world. The essay
develops this idea in two sections, two supplements, and a long Appendix.
Section I contains the preliminary articles for perpetual peace among states,
including articles declaring that there should be no peace treaty with a se¬
cret reservation of material for another war (article 1), that states are not
the kinds of things that can be acquired by other states (article 2), and that
there should be no standing armies (article 3), no national debt (article
4), no forcible interference in any other state's constitution of government
(article 5), and no extreme measures in case of war (article 6).
Section II formulates the "definitive articles for perpetual peace among
states." The first of these is that "The civil constitution in every state shall
be republican."^216 This constitution is based on three principles, namely,
the principle of the freedom of the members of a society as individuals,
the principle of the dependence of all members on a single legislation as
subjects, and the principle of the equality of all citizens. This is the only
form of government that follows from the idea of an original contract.
Though Kant does not want this republican constitution to be confused