When the rationalism of the Enlightenment replaced the super-
stitions of an earlier age, some explanation had to found for the cur-
ative powers of certain famous springs. This led, in the 18th century,
to the birth of the spa culture, and doctors would examine any
deposits left behind when they had boiled away the water, in order
to identify this and that mineral as the true elixir that would give
legitimacy to their spa water. During the Protestant Reformation in
England, and then with the decline of rural populations, many
sacred springs fell into disuse, being rediscovered by Irish immi-
grants in the nineteenth century, whose Celtic-based Catholicism
still had strong pagan roots.
Today, with the revival of ancient rural traditions, many sacred
springs are being restored in Britain and in Continental Europe.Seepage springs
What is generally understood as a spring is actually not a true
spring, but a seepage spring which is the overflowing of surplus
water from soil and rock strata that have a limited depth (Fig. 10.1).
Rainwater which is warmer than the ground (a positive tempera-
ture gradient), soaks in and descends until it reaches an impervi-
ous layer like clay, which channels it out as a stream to the surface
again, lower down. It acts by gravity. The temperature of the water
will be that of the strata from which it emerges, probably between
+6°C (43°F) to +9°C (48°F). This water will contain some trace ele-
ments, minerals and dissolved salts but, generally speaking, not in
such a broad spectrum as true springs. The seepage spring
responds quickly to variations in precipitation, frequently drying
up in a hot summer, and flowing strongly after heavy rain.
True springs
A true spring originates from much deeper strata (Fig. 10.2).
Water collects in ancient aquifers and retaining basins over many
years, and the water emerging to the surface might be hundreds of
years old; or even thousands in the case of the famous therapeu-
tic hot springs. Because of their age, these spa waters are extraor-
dinarily rich in well-balanced minerals. The rich waters of the
Hunza Valley in Pakistan, or the Caucasus mountains, which are
credited for the longevity of the local people, also originate in true
- THE FORMATION OF SPRINGS