Feist−Feist: Theories of
Personality, Seventh
EditionV. Learning Theories 15. Skinner: Behavioral
Analysis(^458) © The McGraw−Hill
Companies, 2009
existing within the person, whereas Skinner accounted for this behavior by environ-
mental differences and by the individual’s history of reinforcement. The first expla-
nation is beyond the scope of empirical observation; the second can be scientifically
studied.
A response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforce-
ment is called stimulus generalization.An example of stimulus generalization is
provided by a college student’s purchase of a ticket to a rock concert performed by
a group she has neither seen nor heard but one she has been told is similar to her
favorite rock group. Technically, people do not generalize from one situation to an-
other, but rather they react to a new situation in the same manner that they reacted
to an earlier one because the two situations possess some identical elements; that
is, buying a ticket to one rock concert contains elements identical to buying a
ticket to a different rock concert. Skinner (1953) put it this way: “The reinforce-
ment of a response increases the probability of all responses containing the same
elements” (p. 94).
Reinforcement
According to Skinner (1987a), reinforcementhas two effects: It strengthens the be-
haviorand it rewards the person.Reinforcement and reward, therefore, are not syn-
onymous. Not every behavior that is reinforced is rewarding or pleasing to the per-
son. For example, people are reinforced for working, but many find their jobs boring,
uninteresting, and unrewarding. Reinforcers exist in the environment and are not
something felt by the person. Food is not reinforcing because it tastes good; rather,
it tastes good because it is reinforcing (Skinner, 1971).
Any behavior that increases the probability that the species or the individual
will survive tends to be strengthened. Food, sex, and parental care are necessary for
the survival of the species, and any behavior that produces these conditions is rein-
forced. Injury, disease, and extremes in climate are detrimental to survival, and any
behavior that tends to reduce or avoid these conditions is likewise reinforced. Rein-
forcement, therefore, can be divided into that which produces a beneficial environ-
mental condition and that which reduces or avoids a detrimental one. The first is
called positive reinforcement;the second is negative reinforcement.
Positive Reinforcement Any stimulus that, when added to a situation, increases the
probability that a given behavior will occur is termed a positive reinforcer(Skinner,
1953). Food, water, sex, money, social approval, and physical comfort usually are ex-
amples of positive reinforcers. When made contingent on behavior, each has the ca-
pacity to increase the frequency of a response. For example, if clear water appears
whenever a person turns on the kitchen faucet, then that behavior is strengthened be-
cause a beneficial environmental stimulus has been added. Much human and animal
behavior is acquired through positive reinforcement. Under controlled conditions,
Skinner was able to train animals to perform a multitude of relatively complex tasks.
With humans, however, reinforcement is often haphazard, and therefore learn-
ing is inefficient. Another problem with conditioning humans is determining what
consequences are reinforcing and which ones are not. Depending on personal his-
tory, spankings and scoldings might be reinforcing, and kisses and compliments
might be punishing.
452 Part V Learning Theories