study conducted in Toronto, single bystanders provided emergency
aid 90 percent of the time, whereas such aid occurred in only 16 percent
of the cases when a bystander was in the presence of two other
bystanders who remained passive.
After more than a decade of such research, social scientists now have
a good idea of when a bystander will offer emergency aid. First, and
contrary to the view that we have become a society of callous, uncaring
people, once witnesses are convinced that an emergency situation exists,
aid is very likely. Under these conditions, the numbers of bystanders
who either intervene themselves or summon help is quite comforting.
For example, in four separate experiments done in Florida, accident
scenes involving a maintenance man were staged. When it was clear
that the man was hurt and required assistance, he was helped 100 per-
cent of the time in two of the experiments. In the other two experiments,
where helping involved contact with potentially dangerous electrical
wires, the victim still received bystander aid in 90 percent of the in-
stances. In addition, these extremely high levels of assistance occurred
whether the witnesses observed the event singly or in groups.^9
The situation becomes very different when, as in many cases,
bystanders cannot be sure that the event they are witnessing is an
emergency. Then a victim is much more likely to be helped by a lone
bystander than by a group, especially if the people in the group are
strangers to one another. It seems that the pluralistic ignorance effect
is strongest among strangers: Because we like to look poised and
sophisticated in public and because we are unfamiliar with the reactions
of those we do not know, we are unlikely to give off or correctly read
expressions of concern when in a grouping of strangers. Therefore, a
possible emergency becomes viewed as a nonemergency, and the victim
suffers.^10
A close look at this set of research findings reveals an enlightening
pattern. All the conditions that decrease an emergency victim’s chances
for bystander aid exist normally and innocently in the city: (1) In contrast
to rural areas, cities are more clamorous, distracting, rapidly changing
places where it is difficult to be certain of the nature of the events one
encounters. (2) Urban environments are more populous, by their nature;
consequently, people are more likely to be with others when witnessing
a potential emergency situation. (3) City dwellers know a much smaller
percentage of fellow residents than do people who live in small towns;
therefore, city dwellers are more likely to find themselves in a group
of strangers when observing an emergency.
These three natural characteristics of urban environments—their
confusion, their populousness, and their low levels of acquaintance-
ship—fit in very well with the factors shown by research to decrease
Robert B. Cialdini Ph.D / 103