Microbiology and Immunology

WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY Transplantation genetics and immunology

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genetic codeis non-overlapping, i.e., the nucleotide in one

codon is never part of the adjacent codon. The code also seems

to be universal in all living organisms.

See also Cell cycle (prokaryotic), genetic regulation of;

Chromosomes, prokaryotic; Cytoplasm, prokaryotic; Genetic

regulation of prokaryotic cells; Molecular biology and molec-

ular genetics; Protein synthesis; Proteins and enzymes;

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)

TRANSMISSION ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

(TEM)•seeELECTRON MICROSCOPE, TRANSMISSION AND

SCANNING

TTransmission of pathogensRANSMISSION OF PATHOGENS

Microorganisms that cause disease in humans and other

species are known as pathogens. The transmission of

pathogens to a human or other host can occur in a number of

ways, depending upon the microorganism.

A common route is via water. The ingestion of contami-

nated water introduces the microbes into the digestive system.

Intestinal upsets can result. As well, an organism may be capa-

ble of entering the cells that line the digestive tract and gaining

entry to the bloodstream. From there, an infection can become

widely dispersed. A prominent example of a water borne

pathogen is Vibrio cholerae, the bacterium that causes cholera.

The contaminationof drinking water by this bacterium is still

at epidemic proportions in some areas of the world.

Pathogens can also be transmitted via the air. Viruses

and bacterial spores are light enough to be lifted on the breeze.

These agents can subsequently be inhaled, where they cause

lung infections. An example of such as virus is the Hanta

virus. A particularly prominent bacterial example is the spore

form of the anthrax-causing bacterium Bacillus anthracis. The

latter has also been identified as a bioterrorist weapon that can,

as exemplified in a 2001 terrorist attack on the United States,

be transmitted in mail that when opened or touched can result

in cutaneous or inhalation anthrax.

Still other microbial pathogens are transmitted from one

human to another via body fluids such as the blood. This route

is utilized by a number of viruses. The most publicized exam-

ple is the transmission of Human Immunodeficiency Virus

(HIV). HIV is generally regarded to be the cause of acquired

immunodeficiencysyndrome. As well, viruses that cause hem-

orrhagic fever (e.g., Ebola) are transmitted in the blood. If pre-

cautions are not taken when handling patients, the caregiver

can become infected.

Transmission of pathogens can occur directly, as in the

above mechanisms. As well, transmission can be indirect. An

intermediate host that harbors the microorganism can transfer

the microbes to humans via a bite or by other contact. Coxiella

burnetti, the bacterium that cause Q-fever, is transmitted to

humans from the handling of animals such as sheep. As another

example, the trypanosome parasite that causes sleeping sick-

nessenters the bloodstream upon the bite of a female mosquito

that acts as a vector for the transmission of the parasite.

Finally, some viruses are able to transmit infection over

long periods of time by become latent in the host. More

specifically, the genetic material of viruses such as the hepa-

titis viruses and the herpes virus can integrate and be carried

for decades in the host genome before the symptoms of infec-

tions appear.

See alsoAnthrax, terrorist use as a biological weapon;

Bacteria and bacterial infection; Epidemics and pandemics;

Yeast, infectious; Zoonoses

TRANSPLANTATION GENETICS AND

IMMUNOLOGYTransplantation genetics and immunology

There are several different types of transplantation. An auto-

graft is a graft from one part of the body to another site on the

same individual. An isograft is one between individuals that

Transmission of pathogens, such as those affecting poultry, can be

promoted by crowded living conditions.

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