Microbiology and Immunology

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XXanthophyllsANTHOPHYLLS

Photosynthesisis the conversion of light energy into chemical

energy utilized by plants, many algae, and cyanobacteria.

However, each photosynthetic organism must be able to dissi-

pate the light radiation that exceeds its capacity for carbon

dioxide fixation before it can damage the photosynthetic appa-

ratus (i.e., the chloroplast). This photoprotection is usually

mediated by oxygenated carotenoids, i.e., a group of yellow

pigments termed xanthophylls, including violaxanthin, anther-

axanthin, and zeaxanthin, which dissipate the thermal radiation

from the sunlight through the xanthophyll cycle.

Xanthophylls are present in two large protein-cofactor

complexes, present in photosynthetic membranes of organ-

isms using Photosystem I or Photosystem II. Photosystem II

uses water as electron donors, and pigments and quinones as

electron acceptors, whereas the Photosystem I uses plasto-

cyanin as electron donors and iron-sulphur centers as electron

acceptors. Photosystem I in thermophilic Cyanobacteria, for

instance, is a crystal structure that contains 12 protein sub-

units, 2 phylloquinones, 22 carotenoids, 127 cofactors consti-

tuting 96 chlorophylls, besides calcium cations,

phospholipids, three iron-sulphur groups, water, and other

elements. This apparatus captures light and transfers electrons

to pigments and at the same time dissipates the excessive exci-

tation energy via the xanthophylls.

Xanthophylls are synthesized inside the plastids and do

not depend on light for their synthesis as do chlorophylls.

From dawn to sunset, plants and other photosynthetic organ-

isms are exposed to different amounts of solar radiation,

which determine the xanthophyll cycle. At dawn, a pool of

diepoxides termed violaxanthin is found in the plastids, which

will be converted by the monoepoxide antheraxanthin into

zeaxanthin as the light intensity gradually increases during the

day. Zeaxanthin absorbs and dissipates the excessive solar

radiation that is not used by chlorophyllduring carbon dioxide

fixation. At the peak hours of sunlight exposition, almost all

xanthophyll in the pool is found under the form of zeaxanthin,

which will be gradually reconverted into violaxanthin as the

solar radiation decreases in the afternoon to be reused again in

the next day.

See alsoAutotrophic bacteria; Photosynthetic microorganisms

XXanthophytaANTHOPHYTA

The yellow-green algae are photosynthetic species of organ-

isms belonging to the Xanthophyta Phylum, which is one of

the phyla pertaining to the Chromista Group in the Protista

Kingdom. Xanthophyta encompasses 650 living species so far

identified. Xanthophyta live mostly in freshwater, although

some species live in marine water, tree trunks, and damp soils.

Some species are unicellular organisms equipped with two

unequal flagella that live as free-swimming individuals, but

most species are filamentous. Filamentous species may be

either siphonous or coenocytic. Coenocytes are organized as a

single-cell multinucleated thallus that form long filaments

without septa (internal division walls) except in the special-

ized structures of some species. Siphonous species have mul-

tiple tubular cells containing several nuclei.

Xanthophyta synthesize chlorophyll a and smaller

amounts of chlorophyll c, instead of the chlorophyll b of

plants; and the cellular structure usually have multiple chloro-

plasts without nucleomorphs. The plastids have four mem-

branes and their yellow-green color is due to the presence of

beta-carotene and xanthins, such as vaucheriaxanthin, diatox-

anthin, diadinoxanthin, and heretoxanthin, but not fucoxan-

thin, the brown pigment present in other Chromista. Because

of the presence of significant amounts of chlorophyll a,

Xanthophyceae species are easily mistaken for green algae.

They store polysaccharide under the form of chrysolaminarin

and carbohydrates as oil droplets.

One example of a relatively common Xanthophyta is

the class Vaucheria that gathers approximately 70 species,

whose structure consists of several tubular filaments, sharing

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