Editor’s note: This is a historical chronology principally devoted to mark-
ing milestones in human scientific achievement and is intended to provide
a valuable reference that will enable readers to relate dates and events men-
tioned in the text to the larger scope of related scientific achievement.
Although mention is made of epidemics and pandemics, it is beyond the
scope of this chronology to provide a comprehensive listing of such events.ca. 10000 B.C.
Neolithic Revolution: transition from a hunting-and-
gathering mode of food production to farming and
animal husbandry, that is, the domestication of plants
and animals.ca. 3500 B.C.
Sumerians describe methods of managing the date
harvest.ca. 700 B.C.
The use of anatomical models is established in India.ca. 600 B.C.
Thales, the founder of the Ionian school of Greek
philosophy, identifies water as the fundamental ele-
ment of nature. Other Ionian philosophers construct
different theories about the nature of the Universe
and living beings.ca. 500 B.C.
Alcmaeon, Pythagorean philosopher and naturalist,
pursues anatomical research and concludes that
humans are fundamentally different from animals.
He also differentiates arteries from veins. His work
establishes the foundations of comparative anatomy.ca. 450 B.C.
Empedocles, Greek philosopher, asserts that the
Universe and all living things are composed of four
fundamental elements: earth, air, fire, and water.ca. 430 B.C.
Plague of Athens caused by unknown infectious
agent. One third of the population (increased by
those fleeing the Spartan army) die.ca. 400 B.C.
Hippocrates, Greek physician, establishes a school
of medicine on the Aegean island of Cos. According
to Hippocratic medical tradition, the four humors
that make up the human body correspond to the four
elements that make up the Universe. Hippocrates
suggests using the developing chick egg as a model
for embryology, and notes that offspring inherit traits
from both parents.ca. 400 B.C.
The Greek philosopher Democritus argues that
atoms are the building blocks of the Universe and all
living things. Democritus was an early advocate of
the preformation theory of generation (embryology).ca. 350 B.C.
The Greek philosopher Aristotle attempts to classify
animals and describes various theories of generation,
including sexual, asexual, and spontaneous genera-
tion. Aristotle argues that the male parent contributes
“form” to the offspring and the female parent con-
tributes “matter.” He discusses preformation and epi-
genesis as possible theories of embryological
development, but argues that development occurs by
epigenesis.ca. 50 B.C.
Lucretius proposes a materialistic, atomistic theory
of nature in his poem On the Nature of Things.He
favors the preformation theory of embryological
development.HISTORICALCHRONOLOGY
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