Microbiology and Immunology

Biological warfare WORLD OF MICROBIOLOGY AND IMMUNOLOGY

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data or only protein sequence data), currently available for

these purposes are the European Molecular BiologyDNA

Sequence Database (EMBL), GenBank, SwissProt and the

Protein Identification Resource (PIR). Secondary databases

contain information derived from other databases. Specialist

databases, or knowledge databases, are collections of

sequence information, expert commentary and reference liter-

ature. Finally, integrated databases are collections (amalgama-

tions) of primary and secondary databases.

The area of bioinformatics concerned with the deriva-

tion of protein sequences makes it conceivable to predict

three-dimensional structures of the protein molecules, by use

of computer graphics and by comparison with similar pro-

teins, which have been obtained as a crystal. Knowledge of

structure allows the site(s) critical for the function of the pro-

tein to be determined. Subsequently, drugs active against the

site can be designed, or the protein can be utilized to

enhanced commercial production processes, such as in phar-

maceutical bioinformatics.

Bioinformatics also encompasses the field of compara-

tive genomics. This is the comparison of functionally equiva-

lent genes across species. A yeast gene is likely to have the

same function as a worm protein with the same amino acid.

Alternately, genes having similar sequence may have diver-

gent functions. Such similarities and differences will be

revealed by the sequence information. Practically, such

knowledge aids in the selectionand design of genes to instill

a specific function in a product to enhance its commercial

appeal.

The most widely known example of a bioinformatics

driven endeavor is the Human Genome Project. It was initi-

ated in 1990 under the direction of the National Center for

Human Genome Research with the goal of sequencing the

entire human genome. While this has now been accomplished,

the larger aim of determining the function of each of the

approximately 50,000 genes in the human genome will require

much further time and effort. Work related to the Human

Genome Project has allowed dramatic improvements in

molecular biological techniques and improved computational

tools for studying genomic function.

See also Hazard Analysis and Critical Point Program

(HAACP); Immunological analysis techniques; The Institute

for Genomic Research (TIGR); Medical training and careers

in microbiology; Transplantation genetics and immunology

BBiological warfareIOLOGICAL WARFARE

Biological warfare, as defined by The United Nations, is the

use of any living organism (e.g. bacterium, virus) or an infec-

tive component (e.g., toxin), to cause disease or death in

humans, animals, or plants. In contrast to bioterrorism, bio-

logical warfare is defined as the “state-sanctioned” use of bio-

logical weapons on an opposing military force or civilian

population.

Biological weapons include viruses, bacteria, rickettsia,

and biological toxins. Of particular concern are genetically

altered microorganisms, whose effect can be made to be

group-specific. In other words, persons with particular traits

are susceptible to these microorganisms.

The use of biological weapons by armies has been a

reality for centuries. For example, in ancient records of battles

exist the documented use of diseased bodies and cattle that had

died of microbial diseases to poison wells. There are even

records that infected bodies or carcasses were catapulted into

cities under siege.

In the earliest years of the twentieth century, however,

weapons of biological warfare were specifically developed by

modern methods, refined, and stockpiled by various govern-

ments.

During World War I, Germany developed a biological

warfare program based on the anthrax bacillus (Bacillus

anthracis) and a strain of Pseudomonas known as

Burkholderia mallei. The latter is also the cause of Glanders

disease in cattle.

Allied efforts in Canada, the United States, and Britain

to develop anthrax-based weapons were also active in World

War II During World War II, Britain actually produced five

million anthrax cakes at the U.K. Chemical and Biological

Defense Establishment at Porton Down facility that were

intended to be dropped on Germany to infect the food chain.

The weapons were never used. Against their will, prisoners in

German Nazi concentration camps were maliciously infected

with pathogens, such as hepatitisA, Plasmodiaspp., and two

types of Rickettsiabacteria, during studies allegedly designed

to develop vaccines and antibacterial drugs. Japan also con-

ducted extensive biological weapon research during World

War II in occupied Manchuria, China. Unwilling prisoners

were infected with a variety of pathogens, including Neisseria

meningitis, Bacillus anthracis, Shigella spp, and Yersinia

pestis. It has been estimated that over 10,000 prisoners died as

a result of either infection or execution following infection. In

addition, biological agents contaminated the water supply and

some food items, and an estimated 15 million potentially

plague-infected fleas were released from aircraft, affecting

many Chinese cities. However, as the Japanese military found

out, biological weapons have fundamental disadvantages: they

are unpredictable and difficult to control. After infectious

agents were let loose in China by the Japanese, approximately

10,000 illnesses and 1,700 deaths were estimated to have

occurred among Japanese troops.

A particularly relevant example of a microorganism

used in biological warfare is Bacillus anthracis. This bac-

terium causes anthrax. Bacillus anthraciscan live as a vegeta-

tive cell, growing and dividing as bacteria normally do. The

organism has also evolved the ability to withstand potentially

lethal environmental conditions by forming a near-dormant,

highly resistant form known as a spore. The spore is designed

to hibernate until conditions are conducive for growth and

reproduction. Then, the spore resuscitates and active meta-

bolic life resumes. The spore form can be easily inhaled to

produce a highly lethal inhalation anthrax. The spores quickly

and easily resuscitate in the warm and humid conditions of the

lung. Contact with spores can also produce a less lethal but

dangerous cutaneous anthrax infection.

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