statements or hypotheses in order to determine
causal and measurable relationships among the
variables being tested” (Leininger, 1997, p. 43). In
qualitative research there is no control of inform-
ant’s ideas or manipulation of data or variables by
the researcher; open inquiry prevails to obtain data
directly and naturally from informants in their own
homes, communities, or other natural environ-
mental contexts. In contrast, in quantitative re-
search, precise measurements are obtained and
specific causal relationships among variables are
sought. Leininger has stated that the quantitative
and qualitative paradigms should not be mixed, as
they violate the philosophy, purposes, and integrity
of each paradigm. The ethnonursing method is a
unique and essential qualitative method to study
caring and healing practices, beliefs, and values in
diverse cultural and environmental contexts and is
a major holistic method specifically designed to fit
the culture care theory.
Purpose and Philosophical Features
Leininger developed the ethnonursing research
method from a nursing and cultural care perspec-
tive to discover largely unknown phenomena held
essential to practice nursing used (1985, 1991b).
She has stated that the ethnonursing method is
used to “systematically document and gain greater
understanding and meaning of the people’s daily
life experiences related to human care, health, and
well-being in different or similar environmental
contexts” (Leininger, 1991b, p. 78). The central pur-
pose of the ethnonursing research method is “to es-
tablish a naturalistic and largely emic open inquiry
method to explicate and study nursing phenomena
especially related to the Theory of Cultural Care
Diversity and Universality” (Leininger, 1991b, p.
75). The term ethnonursingwas purposefully coined
for this method. The prefix ethnocomes from the
Greek word ethosand refers “to the people,” while
the suffix nursingis essential to focus the research
on the phenomena of nursing, particularly human
care, well-being, and health in different environ-
ments and cultural contexts (Leininger, 1991b).
The ethnonursing research method has philo-
sophical and research features that fit well with the
culture care theory. Philosophically, the ethnonurs-
ing method has been grounded with the people
(Leininger, 1991b) and has supported the discovery
of people truths in human living contexts
(Leininger, 1988). This research method was de-
signed to tease out complex, elusive, and largely un-
known nursing dimensions from the local people’s
viewpoints of human care, well-being, health, and
environmental contexts. The terms emicand etic
were important concepts chosen for foci with the
ethnonursing method. Ethnonursing focuses
largely on the importance of emic (insiders’ or local
peoples’) views but does not neglect etic (the non-
local or outsiders’) views to obtain a holistic view.
For instance, one ethnonursing researcher gathered
emic data from elderly retirement home residents
on their ideas and experiences with care but also
gathered etic data focused on the professional per-
spectives of the nursing staff (McFarland, 1997).
The culture care theory has been developed to be
congruent with the ethnonursing method and re-
quires the researcher to move into familiar and nat-
uralistic people settings to discover human care and
the related nursing phenomena of health (well-
being), illness, and other phenomena within an
environmental context (Leininger, 1991b, p. 85).
Domain of Inquiry
A domain of inquiryis the major focus of the ethno-
nursing researcher’s interests. A domain of inquiry
is broad and yet focused in order to obtain specific
care and health outcomes of a culture within a
nursing perspective. With the ethnonursing
method, problem statements are not used because a
researcher does not know whether there is a people
problem or more of a researcher’s problem of se-
lected (and possibly biased) views of the people
(Leininger, 1997). For example, some domains of
inquiry in ethnonursing studies using the culture
care theory have been: the care meanings and expe-
riences of Lebanese Muslims living in the United
States in a designated urban context (Luna, 1994);
the cultural care of elderly Anglo and African
American residents within the environmental con-
text of a long-term care institution (McFarland,
1997); and the care of Mexican American women
during pregnancy (Berry, 1999).
Key and General Informants
Key and general informants are important in the
ethnonursing research method. The research using
this method does not have subjects but works with
informants. In an ethnonursing study of the culture
care of Anglo and African American elderly resi-
dents of a retirement home, the researcher worked
with the elders and nursing staff members as key322 SECTION III Nursing Theory in Nursing Practice, Education, Research, and Administration