188
Notes
(^1) SeeJavādī,Tārīkh-iṭanzdaradabiyāt-ifārsī,pp.93–124.IwouldliketothankTerryGrahamandJason
Elliotfortheirmanyhelpfulcommentsonearlierversionsofthisessay.
(^2) M.R.Shafī‘ī-Kadkanī,Zamīna-iijtamā‘ī-yishi‘r-ifārsī,pp.311–12,stressesanti-clericalcontentofḤāfiẓ’s
verse,underlininghowalltheparodyandinvectiveinhispoetryandallhissocialcriticismandsatire
isaimedatfiguresofreligiousauthoritywhopersonifysanctimonyandcant.
(^3) Foranoverviewoftheinspiredlibertine’sroleinhispoetry,seemyProlegomenon2,pp.31–55above.
(^4) Pope,EssayonMan,IV:305–6.
(^5) Cf. the many useful citation of verses from Ḥāfiẓ on this subject in Khurramshāhī,Ḥāfiẓ-nāma,I, pp.
365ff.,andtheexcellentassemblyof‘DescriptiveAdjectives,NamesandtheQualitiesofWorldliness
inḤāfiẓ’inBihishtī’sSharḥ-ijunūn,pp.680–735.
(^6) ThePuritanmovementwasthe‘militanttendency’withinEnglishProtestantism,andlasteddownto
thelateseventeenthcenturyinEnglandandintotheearlyeighteenthcenturyintheUSA.Theactual
word ‘Puritan’ was coined in the middle of the sixteenth century by the English as a handy term of
abuse and insult directed at non-conformist Protestant clergy (Collinson, ‘Antipuritanism’, pp.
19–23), being one of several pejorative nicknames applied to the hotter sort of hyper-zealot who
wished to ‘reform the Reformation’. The‘fraudulentpiety’ of many Puritans in Englishsociety, who
often incarnated ‘the very sins which Puritans attribute to the ungodly: unprincipled greed, decep-
tion and dishonesty; and especially, sexual depravity’ (ibid., p. 29), led the Puritan to become the
stereotypeofareligioushypocriteinElizabetheandrama,since‘hypocrisywasthekindofkeysigna-
tureforeverythingelseattributedtoPuritans’(ibid.,p.27).Originallyawordwithapositiveconno-
tation denoting a person of upright and public godliness, the term ‘Puritan’ soon became an
antithetical stigma hurled at religious hypocrites who were the real puritans’ less-than-ideal repre-
sentatives. This stereotypical connotation of ‘Puritan’ as a religious hypocrite renders it a near-
perfecttranslation,oratleastahandyEnglishidiomaticequivalent,forḤāfiẓ’szāhid,acharacterwith
almost identical traits in Persian literature. The term ‘puritan’ in the Islamic context has recently
been successfully employed to great effect as a convenient label for the most notorious of modern
zāhids: the Wahhabi fundamentalists of contemporary Saudi Arabia. See Khaled Abou El Fadl,The
GreatTheft:WrestlingIslamfromtheExtremists,thechapterson‘TheRiseoftheEarlyPuritans’and‘The
StoryofContemporaryPuritans’.Myusageoftermssuchas‘puritan’,‘pharisee’and‘fundamentalist’
here is not meant to reflect any particular historical denomination in any religion, past or present,
nordoIwishtoeffacethefullsplayanddelicatenuancesofcenturiesofMuslimreligiousandliter-
aryhistoricalusageoftermssuchaszāhid,faqīh,andsoon,bymeansoftheseterminologicalgener-
alizations. Needless to say, the lives and writings of many members of the historical ‘Puritan’
movement,suchasJohnMilton(1608–74)andJohnBunyan(1628–88),doexemplifyacertaintypeof
esotericism and often even give voice to their staunch opposition to the fulminations of religious
zealots,occasionallyafterthemannerofḤāfiẓ.
(^7) The references to the Khānlarī edition, given by Daniela Meneghini Correale in herTheGhazalsof
Hafez:ConcordanceandVocabulary,are,forzāhid:22:5;66:8;70:3;70:11;72:1;75:8;78:1;84:7;135:6;
146:6;154:3;154:6;177:5;188:11;197:2;201:4;249:5;258:8;266:4;324:7;354:2;364:2;366:7;392:
9;409:4;411:5;457:4;458:5;464:4;464:12;471:6;and,forzāhidān:30:6;115:4;192:1;290:7.
(^8) Oneexampleofthismustheresuffice:‘Sleepandfeedhavedrivenyoufarawayfromthedegreeof
your Self. You will reach the degree of your Self when you become without sleep and feed.’Dīvān-i
Ḥāfiẓ, ed. Khānlarī,ghazal478: 45. Cf. an identical sentiment in Shakespeare’sHamlet(IV.4.33–35):
‘What is man / If the chief good and market of his time / Is but to sleep and feed?’ Lāhūrī (Sharḥ-i
‘irfānī-yiDīvān-iḤāfiẓ, IV, p. 2845) explains this line as follows: In theĀdābal-murīdīn[by Abū’l-Najīb
Suhrawardī,d.563/1168], treatingthesubjectofrenouncinggluttonyandsatiety,itiswritten,‘One
who sleeps without cognizance of God is spiritually negligent [al-ghāfil]’, and Yaḥyā bin al-Mu‘ādh
[d. 258/872] remarked, ‘If hunger were bought and sold in the bazaars, the seeker of the life
hereafter would not be allowed to purchase any other ware’. So the poet is saying, ‘O philosopher,
ḤāfiẓandtheReligionofLoveinClassicalPersianPoetry