Food Biochemistry and Food Processing (2 edition)

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830 Part 8: Food Safety and Food Allergens

levels in fish because at the reduced temperatures, both enzy-

matic and microbial activities are considerably reduced, so the

rates of formation of the biogenic amines and their accumulation

in the products are correspondingly reduced.

Salting

Salting can effectively inhibit biogenic amine formation partic-

ularly at high levels. In general, a higher salt content results in a

reduced biogenic amine formation. This is because the high salt

lowers theAwof the milieu, and this can inhibit both the micro-

bial and enzymatic activities that are required for the biogenic

amine formation.

Smoking

Smoking is a traditional method used to preserve fish. The fish

is smoked, then frozen, and transported. Histamine content is

found to increase during the smoking process and continues

to accumulate during subsequent freezing (Zotos et al. 1995).

Even though smoking may induce histamine production and

nitrosamines formation, the high temperature applied in smoking

can also curtail the growth and proliferation of harmful and/or

spoilage microorganisms (Martuscelli et al. 2009).

REGULATIONS

Since high level of biogenic amines, for example, histamine and

tyramine, are associated with food poisoning, their intake has to

be limited. Even though not all amines are equally toxic, and tox-

icological levels are hard to ascertain due to synergetic effects be-

tween amines, permissible limits have still been proposed. Thus,

fermented products that are prepared using good manufacturing

practices may be expected to contain histamine, tyramine, and

β-phenylethylamine concentrations of 50–100 , 100–800, and

30 mg/kg, respectively, and still considered safe and accept-

able for human consumption (Nout 1994). Levels of histamine,

cadaverine, putrescine, tyramine, andβ-phenylethylamine in

sauerkraut must not exceed 10, 25, 50, 20, and 5 mg/kg, respec-

tively, and the total amount of biogenic amines in fish, cheese,

and sauerkraut must be less than 300 mg/kg (Shalaby 1996).

Furthermore, biogenic amine intake greater than 40 mg in a

meal is potentially toxic.

As biogenic amines are not extremely toxic or associated with

many fatal incidences, there are few general regulations con-

trolling their concentration. Histamine, however, is a common

concern and different countries have set up their own standards

for these compounds in foods. For example, a level of 10 mg

histamine for every liter of wine is considered as acceptable in

Switzerland. In the United States, 20 mg histamine per 100 g

canned fish is considered unsafe for human consumption, and

50 mg histamine per 100 g canned fish is considered as a health

hazard by the Food and Drugs Administration (FDA 2001); the

European Economic Community has set the acceptable level of

histamine content in fish as 10–20 mg/100 g (Shalaby 1996);

the Canadian Food Inspection Agency, has set the action level

of histamine as 20 mg/100 g in fermented products and 10 mg/

100 g in scombroid fish products (CFIA 2005, Moret et al. 2005).

CONCLUSION

Biogenic amines are important food components found in many

fermented and non-fermented food production. They are present

as by-products of microbial activity in foods. The microorgan-

isms are either present naturally, added for fermentation pur-

poses, or are introduced through contamination. It is desirable

to minimize the formation of biogenic amines due to their ad-

verse effects on human health and their contribution to food

spoilage and food losses. In particular, the levels of tyramine

and histamine need to be below a certain threshold level in order

to prevent toxic responses.

The study of biogenic amines is an ongoing field of research,

with several foci. Analytical methods are constantly being de-

veloped and/or improved in order to quantify their presence

more rapidly and accurately. Further studies are needed to gen-

erate the basic knowledge on the effects of ingestion, toxic lim-

its, and interactions with other biological molecules, to facili-

tate the rationalization and formulation of more useful recom-

mendations and regulations regarding their safe levels in food

products.

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