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dangerous situations, whereas others leave their children with nannies or in day care. Some parents hug and kiss their
kids and say that they love them over and over every day, whereas others never do. Do these behaviors matter? And
what makes a “good parent”?
We have already considered two answers to this question, in the form of what all children require: (1) babies need a
conscientious mother who does not smoke, drink, or use drugs during her pregnancy, and (2) infants need caretakers
who are consistently available, loving, and supportive to help them form a secure base. One case in which these basic
goals are less likely to be met is when the mother is an adolescent. Adolescent mothers are more likely to use drugs
and alcohol during their pregnancies, to have poor parenting skills in general, and to provide insufficient support for
the child (Ekéus, Christensson, & Hjern, 2004). [1] As a result, the babies of adolescent mothers have higher rates of
academic failure, delinquency, and incarceration in comparison to children of older mothers (Moore & Brooks-Gunn,
2002). [2]
Normally, it is the mother who provides early attachment, but fathers are not irrelevant. In fact, studies have found
that children whose fathers are more involved tend to be more cognitively and socially competent, more empathic,
and psychologically better adjusted, compared with children whose fathers are less involved (Rohner & Veneziano,
2001). [3] In fact, Amato (1994) [4] found that, in some cases, the role of the father can be as or even more important
than that of the mother in the child’s overall psychological health and well-being. Amato concluded, “Regardless of
the quality of the mother-child relationship, the closer adult offspring were to their fathers, the happier, more
satisfied, and less distressed they reported being” (p. 1039).
As the child grows, parents take on one of four types ofparenting styles—parental behaviors that determine the
nature of parent-child interactions and that guide their interaction with the child. These styles depend on whether
the parent is more or less demanding and more or less responsive to the child (see Figure 6.11 "Parenting
Styles").Authoritarian parents are demanding but not responsive. They impose rules and expect obedience, tending
to give orders (“Eat your food!”) and enforcing their commands with rewards and punishment, without providing any
explanation of where the rules came from, except “Because I said so!” Permissive parents, on the other hand, tend to
make few demands and give little punishment, but they are responsive in the sense that they generally allow their
children to make their own rules. Authoritative parents are demanding (“You must be home by curfew”), but they are
also responsive to the needs and opinions of the child (“Let’s discuss what an appropriate curfew might be”). They set
rules and enforce them, but they also explain and discuss the reasons behind the rules. Finally, rejecting-neglecting
parents are undemanding and unresponsive overall.