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(1999). Stereotype threat effects on Black and White athletic performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6),
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[32] Schmader, T., Johns, M., & Forbes, C. (2008). An integrated process model of stereotype threat effects on
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[33] Marx, D. M., & Roman, J. S. (2002). Female role models: Protecting women’s math test performance. Personality and Social
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[34] Johns, M., Schmader, T., & Martens, A. (2005). Knowing is half the battle: Teaching stereotype threat as a means of
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9.3 Communicating With Others: The Development and Use of Language
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
- Review the components and structure of language.
- Explain the biological underpinnings of language.
- Outline the theories of language development.
Human language is the most complex behavior on the planet and, at least as far as we know, in
the universe. Language involves both the ability to comprehend spoken and written words and to
create communication in real time when we speak or write. Most languages are oral, generated
through speaking. Speaking involves a variety of complex cognitive, social, and biological
processes including operation of the vocal cords, and the coordination of breath with movements
of the throat and mouth, and tongue. Other languages are sign languages, in which the
communication is expressed by movements of the hands. The most common sign language is
American Sign Language (ASL), currently spoken by more than 500,000 people in the United
States alone.
Although language is often used for the transmission of information (“turn right at the next light
and then go straight,” “Place tab A into slot B”), this is only its most mundane function.
Language also allows us to access existing knowledge, to draw conclusions, to set and
accomplish goals, and to understand and communicate complex social relationships. Language is