RESEARCH, REASONING, AND ANALYSIS 113theorists had made such conclusions. When looking for evidence, then, we are not
looking for a specific 'thing' but simply the material that will become the majority
of our premises.
Finally, the sort of information that is most important (yet least often consid-
ered) is not actually stated in most books and articles. It remains implied, waiting
within texts to be inferred by their readers. It concerns the values and attitudes of
the authors of what you read and hear. These values include judgments about
which actions are good and which are bad. For example, many commentators on
nationalism believe that too much national pride is bad because it promotes
conflict and competition. Unless we understand this value system, we cannot
interpret and respond to what is written within it. We cannot understand the range
of possible opinions on nationalism unless we understand that the same 'facts' (say,
one particular advertisement) may lead to dramatically different conclusions when
interpreted from different political or ethical standpoints. Moreover, values can also
relate to 'correct' ways of investigating a problem. If we do a socio-economic
analysis of television advertising in relation to the ways that large companies profit
from calling upon consumers' patriotism, then, implicitly, we are making a value
judgment that it is inappropriate to use a different approach (say, a psychological
one that concentrates solely on how an individual responds to advertisements).
Exercise 8.2
Think about an investigation in which you are currently engaged (an essay, report,
experiment, whatever). Think of two examples for each of the five classes and four
types of information listed above. Remember that for each type or class, it is a
question of the relation between the knowledge or information and your topic.
Reflect in particular on the context in which your investigation is occurring.Direct and indirect sources
Direct sources
In broad terms, direct sources are those that provide first-hand information about
events. A radio interview with a politician in which we hear what the politician has
to say about the economy is first-hand. An extensive speech delivered in Parliament
by the same politician is also first-hand. A book that analyses this politician's partic-
ular views about the economy is, by contrast, second-hand. In scientific disciplines,
experiments are the most common direct source; in other disciplines, surveys and
interviews, or research into written and oral records of events provide direct access
to information. All these sources are direct and, within the appropriate context,
recognised as containing original evidence and ideas. They are a significant source
of the material we need to form our arguments and explanations.
It used to be thought that these direct or 'primary' sources were somehow
more 'factual' or descriptive, and that interpretation was added to them by