GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS 175a list of claims and a diagram. The primary use of the analytical structure format is as
a planning tool before or during writing and research. (See chapter 3.)
appeal to authority
A special form of reasoning in which a claim is supported by reference to an
authority on that subject. Authority may stem from academic qualification,
experience, or special knowledge, but in each case, the authority must be relevant
to the claim being supported. References and footnotes are two of the most
common forms in which we encounter appeals to authority. Theoretically, an
appeal to authority is itself an argument that establishes the credentials of the
authority and its relevance. However, in practice, it is an accepted convention
simply to refer to the authority concerned. (See chapter 5.)
argument
Reasoning that seeks to establish the truth of a doubtful claim (which is its con-
clusion). It does not, in this context, mean a disagreement. But the process of
arguing tends to involve assertions and counter-assertions. Arguments are required
where the proposition claimed in the conclusion is in doubt or is presumed
doubtful for 'argument's sake' (as we often say). An argument is not the same as a
theme or topic: themes or topics are the broad areas of interest and investigation
within which arguments (or explanations) occur. Compare with explanation. (See
chapter 2.)
assumption
In relation to the particular structures of reasoning, any claim or link that is not
explicitly expressed can be said to be implied or assumed. These implications are
the result of our assuming that the claim or link is 'obvious'. Such assumptions
impede our ability to think clearly about the possibility that we might be wrong,
or that other connections or claims are involved. More generally, an assumption is
any unconscious or unexamined idea in the context of reasoning. Compare with
context. (See chapter 2.)audience
In relation to reasoning, the 'audience' is that group of people who we wish to
convince of the correctness of our argument or explanation. The expectations,
understandings, and assumptions of audiences form part of the context of our
reasoning and are central to decisions about the effectiveness of that reasoning. The
audience should be thought of as consisting both of people and of the knowledge
on which those people will draw when responding to our arguments and explana-
tions. Compare with context and subject. (See chapter 2.)breadth of reasoning
Good, effective arguments and explanations reason broadly, including a number of
alternative and distinct 'reasons'. (See chapter 6.)