is the prerequisite for ‘method and learning competence’ (Methodenkompetenz und
Lernkompetenz).
In recent years, many countries have adopted competence-based qualiWcations,
usually following quite closely one of the above models or hybrid forms. Compe-
tence-based occupational proWles and/or qualiWcation frameworks already exist or
are under development in most of theWfteen ‘old’ EU member states and are being
promoted in those of the ten ‘new’ EU member states that had not already adopted
this approach. The UK approach had a major impact on the Commonwealth
countries, while the German approach reappears in Austria and Slovenia. Portugal
has adopted the French model in revising the secondary education system with
curricula designed to achieve learning outcomes speciWed in terms of cognitive
competences (competeˆncias cognitivas), functional competences (competeˆncias fun-
cionais), and social competences (competeˆncias sociais).
Competence-based approaches have been criticized for neglecting socio-cultural
contexts, and are accused of creating abstract, narrow, and oversimpliWed descrip-
tions of competence that fail adequately to reXect the complexity of work per-
formance in diVerent organizational cultures and workplace contexts (Attewell
1990 ; Norris 1991 ; Sandberg 1994 ). Competences are centered on the individual, but
constructivist and interpretative approaches derived from phenomenology view
competence as a function of the context in which it is applied (Dreyfus and Dreyfus
1986 ). Interpretative approaches acknowledge workers’ tacit knowledge and skills
(Polanyi 1967 ), overlooked if competence is treated as context free because work
practice seldom accords with formal job descriptions. Tacit competences, even of
so-called ‘unskilled workers’ (Kusterer 1978 ), can have a determining impact on the
success of an enterprise (Flanagan et al. 1993 ).
It can be concluded that while competence-based training and development is
gaining ground, the earlier American psycho-social approach and the narrow
functional approach pioneered in the UK are giving way to more holistic
approaches, particularly along the lines of the French and German models. The
new recognition of the importance of informal and experiential learning is likely to
broaden the concept of competence even further from the abstract, mechanistic
approaches, to legitimize tacit knowledge and skills, and to capture more
adequately the complexity of actual work processes.
16.6 Future Directions
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
Given the diYculties of forecasting future skill needs, any attempt to forecast future
directions of training, development, and competence must carry the usual caveats.
336 jonathan winterton