many levels of organization and knowledge tends toXow relatively freely across
these boundaries (Swart and Kinnie 2003 ). These knowledgeXows are regarded as a
key part of the knowledge production process. It is important to note that
knowledge workers work with knowledge at aninter-organizational level. This
phenomenon is often to the advantage of smallerWrms who may be able to exploit
knowledge outside the permanent employment relationship or, indeed, any
employment relationship. A cluster of small biotechnology, life-science research,
and lawWrms may work together on a larger process of knowledge production.
Similarly, three or four lawWrms may work together on a management buyout and
a life-science researchWrm may work closely with a pharmaceuticalWrm to produce
compounds for further research. Such co-production of knowledge outputs fo-
cuses our attention on the quality of the knowledge network within which theWrm
operates.
The management of knowledge workers is inXuenced, and sometimes con-
trolled, by relationships with organizations in these networks (Kinnie et al. 2005 ).
WhereWrms have fewer and longer-term business-to-business relationships, we
need to consider how suppliers, partners, clients, and customers inXuence the way
in which people are managed in the focalWrm.
In summary, knowledge-basedWrms often operate in volatile, fast-changing envir-
onments. Within this context, they need to manage ambiguous work throughXuid
structures. Internal (knowledge work and knowledge workers) and external (know-
ledge environment) forms ofXuidity are put under pressure by the nature of
network relationships. Networks determine the opportunities for challenging
knowledge work within theWrm, such as working on exciting projects, as well as
the quality of knowledge outputs at the network level.
If we juxtapose the complexity of the wider environment with the characteristics
of the knowledge workers themselves we are in a position to illuminate particular
human resource management challenges that need to be addressed.
22.5 Integrating Individual and
Organizational Perspectives:
Management Dilemmas Associated
with Knowledge Workers
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This section identiWes three key themes which cut across knowledge work,
knowledge workers, and knowledge-based organizations, to enable a discussion
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