particularly the non-standard types, are increasingly being undertaken
by employees outside the senior levels of management (Harris and Brewster 2003 ).
Other individuals are self-initiating international careers, by moving between
countries as part of their job search. Recent research also explores issues such
as HRM initiatives for host-country nationals (Bartlett et al. 2002 ) and the extent
to which transnationalWrms may seek to localize their HRM practices (Aycan
2005 ). Much of the research exploring international HRM issues has focused on
WesternWrms, those headquartered in the USA or Europe. However, there is a
growing literature examining organizations operating in non-Western regions,
and in emerging and transition economies (Ramamurti 2004 ). Overall, the
Weld of international HRM is evolving as researchers and practitioners seek to
understand factors such as the cultural contexts that inXuence transnational
Wrms.
25.3 Landmark Studies in
Cross-Cultural Research
.........................................................................................................................................................................................
International HRM research has been inXuenced by research in theWeld of
comparative anthropology, such as Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s ( 1961 ) framework
of cultural variation. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck ( 1961 ) developedvalues orienta-
tion theory, which has been used in cross-cultural research to examine variation
in social interaction styles; they identiWed six dimensions along which a society can
be placed: relationships to nature, beliefs about human nature, relationships
among people, nature of human activity, conception of space, and orientation
to time.
Within the managementWeld, landmark research by Hofstede ( 1980 ) established
a stream of research exploring the relationship between national cultural diversity
and management practices. Hofstede provided the foundation for a research
stream that views national culture as a key factor in organizational processes;
organizations are viewed as manifestations or consequences of national culture.
Hofstede identiWed Wve cultural dimensions: power distance, individualism–
collectivism, masculinity–femininity, uncertainty avoidance, and (in later research)
short-versus long-term orientation (Hofstede 2001 ).
Following Hofstede’s work, several researchers have sought to identify other
cultural dimensions. For example, Schwartz ( 1994 ) found seven culture-level
dimensions of values, namely aVective autonomy, conservatism, egalitarian com-
mitment, harmony, hierarchy, intellectual autonomy, and mastery. More recently,
the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior EVectiveness) project
transnational firms and cultural diversity 511