Oxford Handbook of Human Resource Management

the role of line managers and then place the causal chain within its wider organ-
izational context.
The purpose of Fig. 26. 1 is to identify the key causal steps in the chain from
intended HR practices to performance outcomes. It does not seek to show all
interconnections, nor map in any accurate way the HRM experience of a givenWrm
and its employees. The model allows attention to be focused on critical steps that
have to be taken if HRM is to have a performance outcome.
Our principal development of the Wright and Nishii model subdivides employee
reactions into employees’ attitudinal reactions and their subsequent behavior. Three
types of behavior need to be speciWed, namely the competencies needed to perform
the job, discretionary behavior, and turnover and absence (or retention and
attendance). These types of employee behavior are highly interelated yet are logically
and empirically distinct. These lead to a model which then has the following key
features:

. Intended HR practicesare those designed by senior management to be applied
to most or all of the employees and concern employees’ ability, motivation,
and opportunity to participate. These practices will be inXuenced by the
articulated values of the organization and found in the HR manual or the
appropriate web pages. These also include the ways work is structured and
organized since this has an impact on employee attitudes and behavior.
. Actual HR practicesare those which are actually applied, usually by line
managers (discussed in more detail below). There may often be a substantial
diVerence between the espousal and the enactment of HR practices in an
organization (Hutchinson and Purcell 2004 ).
. Perceived HR practicesrequire that attention is focused on how employees
experience and then judge the HR practices that are applied to them. What
they perceive may be diVerent from, or the same as, intended and may be
judged through a lens of fairness and organizational justice.Perceived HR
practicescan again be classiWed using the AMO model. This needs, also, to
cover perceptions of overall work climate seen, for example, in levels of trust
(Whitener 2001 ) and employees’ job experience (pace, eVort, autonomy,
challenge, stress, etc.).
. Attitudinal outcomesinclude attitudes employees hold toward their job and
their employer and/or levels of morale or motivation. This especially includes
employees’ willingness to cooperate and their overall satisfaction with their job.

Actual

practices

Perceived

practices

Attitudinal

outcomes

Behavioral

outcomes

Intended

practices

Fig. 26.1. Revised HR causal chain

hrm and business performance 541