74 The informal trade of Cassipourea flanaganii as a cosmetic in South AfricaThe cosmetic use of Cassipourea flanaganii (Schinz) Alston as a skin lightener
appears to be relatively recent, as the first mention of it in the literature surveyed
was in 1976 (Earle 1976). Surprisingly, the use of the species was not recorded in
the extensive work undertaken by Watt and Breyer-Brandwyk (1962) or De Lange’s
(1963) investigation into Xhosa cosmetic practices. This is confirmed by a review
of the literature (Gerstner 1942; De Lange 1963; Earle 1976; Coates Palgrave
1977; Broster 1981; De Villiers 1984; Cunningham 1988, 1993; Hutchings et al.
1996; Khan 1996a, b, c; Cocks 1997; Dold and Cocks 1997, 1999). The absence of
recorded use of C. flanaganii suggests that the use and trade of the species was
uncommon before the early 1970s. It was not until the mid 1970s that Earle
(1976) reported that the chemical skin lightening industry in South Africa was
worth US$12.8 million (converted at a rate of approximately ZAR1.00 to US$1 as
in 1976) for that year and noted that vegetable preparations of the bark of
several species, including C. flanaganii, represented a lucrative informal trade.
Earle (1976) called for strictly controlled harvesting and predicted inevitable
overutilisation of some species. From 1976 to 1990 the trade in manufactured
skin lightening products increased considerably (Khan 1996c). However, many
of these products were mercury based and caused serious damage to the skin.
These products saw widespread use from about 1956 to the early 1970s, when
they were finally banned. The sale of skin lightening products containing
hydroquinone, another mercury-based lightener (Butler’s Pharmacy personal
communication), dates back only to 1961 (Khan 1996c). As a result, lobby groups
protested against over-the-counter skin lightening products. In August 1990 the
National Minister of Health finally proclaimed hydroquinone a substance
controlled by law, to be sold only by pharmacists (Khan 1996c).
Khan’s survey, undertaken in 1996 in the townships of Cape Town, revealed
that skin lightening products were still available and continued to be sold from
pharmacies although not as commonly, nor in as great a quantity as previously.
It is believed that this lack of availability in chemical products is fuelling the
growing trade in traditional skin lightening preparations based on plants such as
C. flanaganii (Khan 1996c). This study revealed that the majority of users equated
a lighter skin colour with beauty, most likely enforced by feelings of racial
inferiority as a result of the psychological legacy of apartheid. Khan (1996c)
concluded by highlighting the fact that this social factor, the desire to be light-
skinned, is responsible for posing a threat to these species as a result of
overharvesting to supply the markets in urban centres.
Another species of Cassipourea, C. gerrardii (Schinz) Alston, has also been
recorded as umemezi and is used and traded in the same way as C. flanaganii in
KwaZulu-Natal and Gauteng (Cunningham 1988; Hutchings et al. 1996; Van Wyk
and Gericke 2000). The bark of these two species are undifferentiated in the
trade (A.B. Cunningham personal communication). The name umemezi has been
referred to by some authors for several unrelated taxa including Calodendrum
capense (L.f.) Thunb. and Rapanea melanophloeos (L.) Mez. In this regard it is
important to differentiate between two important subclassifications of umemezi,
that of umemezi-omhlope (Calodendrum capense) and umemezi-obomvu (C.
flanaganii and C. gerrardii). The suffixes refer to the colour of the cosmetic
paste, omhlope being white and obomvu reddish-brown. These are clearly
differentiated in the trade, but as Calodendrum capense is seldom sold in05cassipourea.p65 74 22/12/2004, 11:04