7 The 100 Most Influential World Leaders of All Time 7free-market mechanisms also began to be introduced into
the Soviet economy, but encountered serious resistance
from party and government bureaucrats.
In foreign affairs, Gorbachev from the beginning cul-
tivated warmer relations and trade with the developed
nations of both West and East. In December 1987 he
signed an agreement with U.S. president Ronald Reagan
for their two countries to destroy all existing stocks of
intermediate-range nuclear-tipped missiles. In 1988–89 he
oversaw the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan
after their nine-year occupation of that country.
In October of 1988, Gorbachev was able to consoli-
date his power by his election to the chairmanship of the
presidium of the Supreme Soviet (the national legisla-
ture). Under changes made to the constitution in
December 1988, a new bicameral parliament called the
U.S.S.R. Congress of People’s Deputies was created, with
some of its members directly elected by the people in
multicandidate elections. In 1989 the newly elected
Congress of People’s Deputies elected from its ranks a
new U.S.S.R. Supreme Soviet that, in contrast to its pre-
decessor of that name, was a real standing parliament with
substantial legislative powers. In May 1989 Gorbachev
was elected chairman of this Supreme Soviet, retaining
the national presidency.
Throughout 1989 Gorbachev had seized every oppor-
tunity to voice his support for reformist Communists in
the Soviet-bloc countries of eastern Europe, and, when
Communist regimes in those countries collapsed like
dominoes late that year, Gorbachev tacitly accepted their
fall. As democratically elected, noncommunist govern-
ments came to power in East Germany, Poland, Hungary,
and Czechoslovakia in late 1989 – 90, Gorbachev agreed
to the phased withdrawal of Soviet troops from those