7 Hongwu 7force and changed his name to Zhu Yuanzhang, rising from
the ranks and eventually taking over leadership of the
group. Zhu Yuanzhang attacked and captured towns and
cities in eastern China and, on reaching the Yangtze River
(Chang Jiang) delta, encountered educated men of the
gentry class. Some decided to join his movement, and Zhu
had the foresight to seek their guidance. From them he
learned the rudiments of the Chinese language and stud-
ied Chinese history and the Confucian classics. More
significant, he learned the principles of government and
built up an effective administration in local areas along-
side the military structure. Moreover, he was persuaded
by his scholars to present himself as a national leader
against the Mongols rather than as a popular rebel.
After defeating rival national leaders, Zhu proclaimed
himself emperor of the Ming dynasty in 1368, establishing
his capital at Nanjing. Hongwu (“Vastly Martial”) was
adopted as his reign title, and he is usually referred to as
the Hongwu emperor, though Taizu (his temple name) is
more strictly correct. He drove the last Yuan (Mongol)
emperor from China that year and reunified the country
by 1382.
The Hongwu emperor was cruel, suspicious, and irra-
tional, especially as he grew older. Instead of eliminating
Mongol influence, he made his court resemble the Mongol
court and established himself as the autocratic ruler for
the rest of the dynasty. He eliminated the posts of prime
minister and central chancellor and had the next level of
administration report directly to him. He restricted cer-
tain groups that were prone to intrigue in the past. He
prohibited eunuchs from participating in government,
forbade the empress to meddle with court politics, and
appointed civilian officials to control military affairs. Of
lowly peasant origins, he always was aware of the popular