Food Chemistry

0Water.................................................

0.1 Foreword

0.2 Structure...............................................

0.2.1 WaterMolecule.........................................

0.2.2 LiquidWaterandIce

0.3 EffectonStorageLife....................................

0.3.1 WaterActivity..........................................

0.3.2 WaterActivityasanIndicator.............................

0.3.3 Phase Transition of Foods Containing Water

0.3.4 WLFEquation..........................................

0.3.5 Conclusion.............................................

0.4 References.............................................

1 Amino Acids, Peptides, Proteins.........................

1.1 Foreword

1.2 AminoAcids...........................................

1.2.1 GeneralRemarks........................................

1.2.2 Classification,DiscoveryandOccurrence

1.2.2.1 Classification...........................................

1.2.2.2 DiscoveryandOccurrence................................

1.2.3 PhysicalProperties

1.2.3.1 Dissociation............................................

1.2.3.2 ConfigurationandOpticalActivity.........................

1.2.3.3 Solubility

1.2.3.4 UV-Absorption

1.2.4 ChemicalReactions

1.2.4.1 Esterification of Carboxyl Groups

1.2.4.2 Reactions of Amino Groups.

1.2.4.2.1 Acylation

1.2.4.2.2 AlkylationandArylation

1.2.4.2.3 CarbamoylandThiocarbamoylDerivatives..................

1.2.4.2.4 Reactions with Carbonyl Compounds.

1.2.4.3 Reactions Involving Other Functional Groups

1.2.4.3.1 Lysine.................................................

1.2.4.3.2 Arginine...............................................

1.2.4.3.3 AsparticandGlutamicAcids..............................

1.2.4.3.4 SerineandThreonine

1.2.4.3.5 CysteineandCystine

1.2.4.3.6 Methionine.............................................

1.2.4.3.7 Tyrosine...............................................

1.2.4.4 ReactionsofAminoAcidsatHigherTemperatures viii Contents

1.2.4.4.1 Acrylamide

1.2.4.4.2 Mutagenic Heterocyclic Compounds.......................

theBiologicalValueofFood(FoodFortification)............. 1.2.5 Synthetic Amino Acids Utilized for Increasing

1.2.5.1 GlutamicAcid..........................................

1.2.5.2 AsparticAcid...........................................

1.2.5.3 Lysine.................................................

1.2.5.4 Methionine.............................................

1.2.5.5 Phenylalanine

1.2.5.6 Threonine..............................................

1.2.5.7 Tryptophan.............................................

1.2.6 SensoryProperties

1.3 Peptides

1.3.1 GeneralRemarks,Nomenclature...........................

1.3.2.1 Dissociation............................................

1.3.4 IndividualPeptides......................................

1.3.4.1 Glutathione

1.3.4.2 Carnosine,AnserineandBalenine

1.3.4.3 Nisin..................................................

1.3.4.4 LysinePeptides.........................................

1.3.4.5 OtherPeptides..........................................

1.4 Proteins

1.4.1 AminoAcidSequence

1.4.1.1 AminoAcidComposition,Subunits........................

1.4.1.2 Terminal Groups........................................

1.4.1.3 PartialHydrolysis

1.4.1.4 SequenceAnalysis

fromtheNucleotideSequenceoftheCodingGene 1.4.1.5 Derivation of Amino Acid Sequence

1.4.2 Conformation

1.4.2.1 ExtendedPeptideChains

1.4.2.2 Secondary Structure (Regular Structural Elements)...........

1.4.2.2.1 β-Sheet................................................

1.4.2.2.2 HelicalStructures

1.4.2.2.3 ReverseTurns

1.4.2.2.4 Super-Secondary Structures

1.4.2.3 TertiaryandQuaternaryStructures.........................

1.4.2.3.1 FibrousProteins

1.4.2.3.2 GlobularProteins

1.4.2.3.3 BSE

1.4.2.3.4 QuaternaryStructures....................................

1.4.2.4 Denaturation

1.4.3.1 Dissociation............................................

1.4.3.2 OpticalActivity.........................................

1.4.3.3 Solubility, Hydration and Swelling Power...................

1.4.3.4 FoamFormationandFoamStabilization

1.4.3.5 GelFormation..........................................

1.4.3.6 EmulsifyingEffect Contents ix

1.4.4 ChemicalReactions

1.4.4.1 LysineResidue

1.4.4.1.1 ReactionsWhichRetainthePositiveCharge.................

1.4.4.1.2 Reactions Resulting in a Loss of Positive Charge

1.4.4.1.3 Reactions Resulting in a Negative Charge...................

1.4.4.1.4 ReversibleReactions.....................................

1.4.4.2 ArginineResidue........................................

1.4.4.3 GlutamicandAsparticAcidResidues

1.4.4.4 CystineResidue(cf.alsoSection1.2.4.3.5)..................

1.4.4.5 CysteineResidue(cf.alsoSection1.2.4.3.5).................

1.4.4.6 MethionineResidue

1.4.4.7 HistidineResidue

1.4.4.8 Tryptophan Residue

1.4.4.9 TyrosineResidue........................................

1.4.4.10 BifunctionalReagents

1.4.4.11 ReactionsInvolvedinFoodProcessing

1.4.5 Enzyme-CatalyzedReactions

1.4.5.1 Foreword

1.4.5.2 ProteolyticEnzymes.....................................

1.4.5.2.1 Serine Endopeptidases...................................

1.4.5.2.2 Cysteine Endopeptidases

1.4.5.2.3 MetaloPeptidases.......................................

1.4.5.2.4 Aspartic Endopeptidases

ofInteresttoFoodProcessing............................. 1.4.6 Chemical and Enzymatic Reactions

1.4.6.1 Foreword

1.4.6.2 ChemicalModification...................................

1.4.6.2.1 Acylation

1.4.6.2.2 Alkylation

1.4.6.2.3 RedoxReactionsInvolvingCysteineandCystine.............

1.4.6.3 EnzymaticModification..................................

1.4.6.3.1 Dephosphorylation

1.4.6.3.2 PlasteinReaction........................................

1.4.6.3.3 Cross-Linking

1.4.7 TexturizedProteins......................................

1.4.7.1 Foreword

1.4.7.2 StartingMaterial........................................

1.4.7.3 Texturization

1.4.7.3.1 SpinProcess

1.4.7.3.2 ExtrusionProcess

1.5 References.............................................

2Enzymes..............................................

2.1 Foreword

2.2 GeneralRemarks,IsolationandNomenclature

2.2.1 Catalysis...............................................

2.2.2 Specificity

2.2.2.1 SubstrateSpecificity.....................................

2.2.2.2 ReactionSpecificity

2.2.3 Structure...............................................

2.2.4 IsolationandPurification................................. x Contents

2.2.5 Multiple Forms of Enzymes.

2.2.6 Nomenclature

2.2.7 ActivityUnits

2.3 EnzymeCofactors.......................................

2.3.1 Cosubstrates............................................

2.3.1.1 NicotinamideAdenineDinucleotide........................

2.3.1.2 Adenosine Triphosphate

2.3.2 Prosthetic Groups

2.3.2.1 Flavins

2.3.2.2 Hemin.................................................

2.3.2.3 Pyridoxal Phosphate

2.3.3 MetalIons

2.3.3.1 Magnesium,CalciumandZinc

2.3.3.2 Iron, Copper and Molybdenum

2.4 TheoryofEnzymeCatalysis

2.4.1 ActiveSite.............................................

2.4.1.1 ActiveSiteLocalization..................................

2.4.1.2 SubstrateBinding

2.4.1.2.1 Stereospecificity

2.4.1.2.2 “Lock and Key” Hypothesis.

2.4.1.2.3 Induced-fitModel.......................................

2.4.2 ReasonsforCatalyticActivity.............................

2.4.2.1 StericEffects–OrientationEffects.........................

2.4.2.2 Structural Complementarity to Transition State...............

2.4.2.3 EntropyEffect..........................................

2.4.2.4 GeneralAcid–BaseCatalysis..............................

2.4.2.5 CovalentCatalysis

2.4.3 ClosingRemarks........................................

2.5 KineticsofEnzyme-CatalyzedReactions

2.5.1 EffectofSubstrateConcentration

2.5.1.1 Single-SubstrateReactions

2.5.1.1.1 Michaelis–MentenEquation

2.5.1.1.2 Determination of KmandV...............................

2.5.1.2 Two-SubstrateReactions

2.5.1.2.1 OrderofSubstrateBinding

2.5.1.2.2 RateEquationsforaTwo-SubstrateReaction

2.5.1.3 AllostericEnzymes......................................

2.5.2 EffectofInhibitors

2.5.2.1 Irreversible Inhibition

2.5.2.2 Reversible Inhibition....................................

2.5.2.2.1 Competitive Inhibition

2.5.2.2.2 Non-Competitive Inhibition

2.5.2.2.3 Uncompetitive Inhibition

2.5.3 EffectofpHonEnzymeActivity

2.5.4 InfluenceofTemperature.................................

2.5.4.1 TimeDependenceofEffects

2.5.4.2 TemperatureDependenceofEffects........................

2.5.4.3 TemperatureOptimum

2.5.4.4 Thermal Stability

2.5.5 InfluenceofPressure

2.5.6 InfluenceofWater....................................... Contents xi

2.6 EnzymaticAnalysis

2.6.1 SubstrateDetermination..................................

2.6.1.1 Principles..............................................

2.6.1.2 End-PointMethod.......................................

2.6.1.3 KineticMethod.........................................

2.6.2 DeterminationofEnzymeActivity.........................

2.6.3 Enzyme Immunoassay...................................

2.6.4 PolymeraseChainReaction...............................

2.6.4.1 PrincipleofPCR........................................

2.6.4.2 Examples

2.6.4.2.1 Addition of Soybean

2.6.4.2.2 GeneticallyModifiedSoybeans............................

2.6.4.2.3 GeneticallyModifiedTomatoes............................

2.6.4.2.4 SpeciesDifferentiation...................................

2.7 Enzyme Utilization in the Food Industry

2.7.1 TechnicalEnzymePreparations............................

2.7.1.1 Production

2.7.1.2 ImmobilizedEnzymes

2.7.1.2.1 Bound Enzymes

2.7.1.2.2 EnzymeEntrapment

2.7.1.2.3 Cross-LinkedEnzymes...................................

2.7.1.2.4 Properties..............................................

2.7.2 IndividualEnzymes

2.7.2.1 Oxidoreductases

2.7.2.1.1 GlucoseOxidase........................................

2.7.2.1.2 Catalase

2.7.2.1.3 Lipoxygenase

2.7.2.1.4 Aldehyde Dehydrogenase

2.7.2.1.5 Butanediol Dehydrogenase

2.7.2.2 Hydrolases.............................................

2.7.2.2.1 Peptidases

2.7.2.2.2 α-andβ-Amylases......................................

2.7.2.2.3 Glucan-1,4-α-D-Glucosidase(Glucoamylase)................

2.7.2.2.4 Pullulanase(Isoamylase)

2.7.2.2.5 Endo-1,3(4)-β-D-Glucanase...............................

2.7.2.2.6 α-D-Galactosidase.......................................

2.7.2.2.7 β-D-Galactosidase(Lactase)

2.7.2.2.8 β-D-Fructofuranosidase(Invertase).........................

2.7.2.2.9 α-L-Rhamnosidase

2.7.2.2.10 CellulasesandHemicellulases.............................

2.7.2.2.11 Lysozyme..............................................

2.7.2.2.12 Thioglucosidase

2.7.2.2.13 PectolyticEnzymes......................................

2.7.2.2.14 Lipases................................................

2.7.2.2.15 Tannases...............................................

2.7.2.2.16 Glutaminase............................................

2.7.2.3 Isomerases.............................................

2.7.2.4 Transferases............................................

2.8 References.............................................

3 Lipids................................................. xii Contents

3.1 Foreword

3.2 FattyAcids.............................................

3.2.1 NomenclatureandClassification...........................

3.2.1.1 SaturatedFattyAcids

3.2.1.2 UnsaturatedFattyAcids..................................

3.2.1.3 Substituted Fatty Acids.

3.2.2.1 Carboxyl Group.........................................

3.2.2.2 Crystalline Structure, Melting Points.......................

3.2.2.3 Urea Adducts

3.2.2.4 Solubility

3.2.2.5 UV-Absorption

3.2.3 ChemicalProperties

3.2.3.1 Methylation of Carboxyl Groups.

3.2.3.2 ReactionsofUnsaturatedFattyAcids.......................

3.2.3.2.1 Halogen Addition Reactions

toConjugatedFattyAcids 3.2.3.2.2 Transformation of Isolene-Type Fatty Acids

3.2.3.2.3 Formation of aπ-Complex with Ag+Ions...................

3.2.3.2.4 Hydrogenation..........................................

3.2.4 BiosynthesisofUnsaturatedFattyAcids

3.3 Acylglycerols...........................................

3.3.1 Triacylglycerols(TG)....................................

3.3.1.1 Nomenclature,Classification,CalorificValue................

3.3.1.2 Melting Properties.

3.3.1.3 ChemicalProperties

3.3.1.4 StructuralDetermination

3.3.1.5 Biosynthesis............................................

3.3.2 Mono- and Diacylglycerols (MG, DG)

3.3.2.1 Occurrence, Production

3.3.2.2 PhysicalProperties

3.4 Phospho- and Glycolipids................................

3.4.1 Classes................................................

3.4.1.1 PhosphatidylDerivatives

3.4.1.2 Glyceroglycolipids

3.4.1.3 Sphingolipids...........................................

3.4.2 Analysis...............................................

3.4.2.1 Extraction,RemovalofNonlipids..........................

3.4.2.2 Separation and Identification of Classes of Components.......

3.4.2.3 Analysis of Lipid Components

3.5 Lipoproteins, Membranes................................

3.5.1 Lipoproteins.

3.5.1.1 Definition

3.5.1.2 Classification...........................................

ofBiologicalMembranes................................. 3.5.2 Involvement of Lipids in the Formation

3.6 Diol Lipids, Higher Alcohols, Waxes and Cutin

3.6.1 DiolLipids.............................................

3.6.2 Higher Alcohols and Derivatives

3.6.2.1 Waxes.................................................

3.6.2.2 AlkoxyLipids Contents xiii

3.6.3 Cutin..................................................

3.7 ChangesinAcylLipidsofFood

3.7.1 EnzymaticHydrolysis

3.7.1.1 TriacylglycerolHydrolases(Lipases).......................

3.7.1.2 Polar-LipidHydrolases...................................

3.7.1.2.1 Phospholipases

3.7.1.2.2 GlycolipidHydrolases

3.7.2 PeroxidationofUnsaturatedAcylLipids....................

3.7.2.1 Autoxidation

3.7.2.1.1 Fundamental Steps of Autoxidation

3.7.2.1.2 Monohydroperoxides

3.7.2.1.3 Hydroperoxide-Epidioxides...............................

3.7.2.1.4 Initiation of a Radical Chain Reaction

3.7.2.1.5 Photooxidation

3.7.2.1.6 HeavyMetalIons

3.7.2.1.7 Heme(in)Catalysis......................................

3.7.2.1.8 Activated Oxygen.......................................

3.7.2.1.9 Secondary Products

3.7.2.2 Lipoxygenase: Occurrence and Properties...................

3.7.2.3 EnzymaticDegradationofHydroperoxides..................

3.7.2.4 Hydroperoxide–ProteinInteractions........................

3.7.2.4.1 Products Formed from Hydroperoxides

3.7.2.4.2 Lipid–ProteinComplexes.................................

3.7.2.4.3 ProteinChanges

3.7.2.4.4 Decomposition of Amino Acids...........................

3.7.3 Inhibition of Lipid Peroxidation...........................

3.7.3.1 AntioxidantActivity.....................................

3.7.3.2 AntioxidantsinFood

3.7.3.2.1 NaturalAntioxidants.....................................

3.7.3.2.2 SyntheticAntioxidants...................................

3.7.3.2.3 Synergists..............................................

3.7.3.2.4 Prooxidative Effect

3.7.4 FatorOilHeating(DeepFrying)

3.7.4.1 AutoxidationofSaturatedAcylLipids......................

3.7.4.2 Polymerization

3.7.5 Radiolysis

3.7.6 Microbial Degradation of Acyl Lipids to Methyl Ketones

3.8 Unsaponifiable Constituents

3.8.1 Hydrocarbons

3.8.2 Steroids

3.8.2.1 Structure,Nomenclature..................................

3.8.2.2 SteroidsofAnimalFood

3.8.2.2.1 Cholesterol.............................................

3.8.2.2.2 VitaminD

3.8.2.3 PlantSteroids(Phytosterols)

3.8.2.3.1 Desmethylsterols........................................

3.8.2.3.2 Methyl-andDimethylsterols..............................

3.8.2.4 Analysis...............................................

3.8.3 Tocopherols and Tocotrienols

3.8.3.1 Structure,Importance....................................

3.8.3.2 Analysis............................................... xiv Contents

3.8.4 Carotenoids

3.8.4.1 ChemicalStructure,Occurrence

3.8.4.1.1 Carotenes..............................................

3.8.4.1.2 Xanthophylls

3.8.4.2 PhysicalProperties

3.8.4.3 ChemicalProperties

3.8.4.4 Precursors of Aroma Compounds

3.8.4.5 UseofCarotenoidsinFoodProcessing

3.8.4.5.1 PlantExtracts...........................................

3.8.4.5.2 Individual Compounds

3.8.4.6 Analysis...............................................

3.9 References.............................................

4 Carbohydrates.........................................

4.1 Foreword

4.2 Monosaccharides.

4.2.1 StructureandNomenclature

4.2.1.1 Nomenclature

4.2.1.2 Configuration...........................................

4.2.1.3 Conformation

4.2.2.1 Hygroscopicity and Solubility

4.2.2.2 OpticalRotation,Mutarotation

4.2.4 ChemicalReactionsandDerivatives........................

4.2.4.1 Reduction to Sugar Alcohols

4.2.4.2 Oxidation to Aldonic, Dicarboxylic and Uronic Acids

4.2.4.3 ReactionsinthePresenceofAcidsandAlkalis...............

4.2.4.3.1 Reactions in Strongly Acidic Media

4.2.4.3.2 Reactions in Strongly Alkaline Solution

4.2.4.3.3 Caramelization

4.2.4.4 Reactions with Amino Compounds (MaillardReaction)

4.2.4.4.1 Initial Phase of the Maillard Reaction.

4.2.4.4.2 Formation of Deoxyosones

4.2.4.4.3 Secondary Products of 3-Deoxyosones

4.2.4.4.6 RedoxReactions........................................

4.2.4.4.7 StreckerReaction

4.2.4.4.8 Formation of Colored Compounds

4.2.4.4.9 ProteinModifications....................................

4.2.4.4.10 Inhibition of the Maillard Reaction

4.2.4.5 Reactions with Hydroxy Compounds (O-Glycosides)

4.2.4.6 Esters

4.2.4.7 Ethers.................................................

4.2.4.8 CleavageofGlycols

4.3 Oligosaccharides

4.3.1 StructureandNomenclature

4.3.2 PropertiesandReactions

4.4 Polysaccharides

4.4.1 Classification,Structure.................................. Contents xv

4.4.2 Conformation

4.4.2.1 Extended or Stretched, Ribbon-Type Conformation...........

4.4.2.2 HollowHelix-TypeConformation..........................

4.4.2.3 Crumpled-TypeConformation.............................

4.4.2.4 Loosely-JointedConformation

4.4.2.5 ConformationsofHeteroglycans...........................

4.4.2.6 InterchainInteractions

4.4.3 Properties..............................................

4.4.3.1 GeneralRemarks........................................

4.4.3.2 Perfectly Linear Polysaccharides

4.4.3.3 Branched Polysaccharides

4.4.3.4 Linearly Branched Polysaccharides

4.4.3.5 Polysaccharides with Carboxyl Groups

4.4.3.6 Polysaccharides with Strongly Acidic Groups

4.4.3.7 Modified Polysaccharides

4.4.3.7.1 Derivatization with Neutral Substituents

4.4.3.7.2 Derivatization with Acidic Substituents

4.4.4 Individual Polysaccharides................................

4.4.4.1 Agar

4.4.4.1.1 Occurrence,Isolation

4.4.4.1.2 Structure,Properties.....................................

4.4.4.1.3 Utilization

4.4.4.2 Alginates

4.4.4.2.3 Derivatives.............................................

4.4.4.3 Carrageenans...........................................

4.4.4.4 Furcellaran.............................................

4.4.4.5 GumArabic............................................

4.4.4.6 GumGhatti

4.4.4.6.1 Occurrence.............................................

4.4.4.7 Gum Tragacanth

4.4.4.7.1 Occurrence.............................................

4.4.4.8 KarayaGum

4.4.4.8.1 Occurrence.............................................

4.4.4.8.3 Utilization xvi Contents

4.4.4.9 GuaranGum

4.4.4.10 LocustBeanGum.......................................

4.4.4.11 TamarindFlour

4.4.4.12 Arabinogalactan from Larch

4.4.4.13 Pectin

4.4.4.14 Starch.................................................

4.4.4.14.2 StructureandPropertiesofStarchGranules

4.4.4.14.3 StructureandPropertiesofAmylose

4.4.4.14.4 StructureandPropertiesofAmylopectin....................

4.4.4.14.6 ResistantStarch.........................................

4.4.4.15 ModifiedStarches.......................................

4.4.4.15.1 MechanicallyDamagedStarches

4.4.4.15.2 ExtrudedStarches.......................................

4.4.4.15.3 Dextrins

4.4.4.15.4 PregelatinizedStarch

4.4.4.15.5 Thin-Boiling Starch

4.4.4.15.6 StarchEthers...........................................

4.4.4.15.7 StarchEsters

4.4.4.15.8 Cross-LinkedStarches

4.4.4.15.9 OxidizedStarches.......................................

4.4.4.16 Cellulose

4.4.4.17 CelluloseDerivatives

4.4.4.17.1 Alkyl Cellulose, Hydroxyalkyl Cellulose....................

4.4.4.17.2 Carboxymethyl Cellulose

4.4.4.18 Hemicelluloses

4.4.4.19 XanthanGum

4.4.4.20 Scleroglucan

4.4.4.20.1 Occurrence,Isolation Contents xvii

4.4.4.21 Dextran................................................

4.4.4.21.1 Occurrence.............................................

4.4.4.22 InulinandOligofructose..................................

4.4.4.22.1 Occurrence.............................................

4.4.4.22.2 Structure...............................................

4.4.4.23 Polyvinyl Pyrrolidone (PVP)

4.4.5 Enzymatic Degradation of Polysaccharides

4.4.5.1 Amylases..............................................

4.4.5.1.1 α-Amylase.............................................

4.4.5.1.2 β-Amylase.............................................

4.4.5.1.3 Glucan-1,4-α-D-glucosidase(Glucoamylase)................

4.4.5.1.4 α-Dextrin Endo-1,6-α-glucosidase(Pullulanase).............

4.4.5.2 PectinolyticEnzymes....................................

4.4.5.3 Cellulases..............................................

4.4.5.4 Endo-1,3(4)-β-glucanase

4.4.5.5 Hemicellulases

4.4.6 Analysis of Polysaccharides

4.4.6.1 ThickeningAgents

4.4.6.2 DietaryFibers

4.5 References.............................................

5 Aroma Compounds.....................................

5.1 Foreword

5.1.1 ConceptDelineation.....................................

5.1.2 Impact Compounds of Natural Aromas

5.1.3 ThresholdValue

5.1.4 AromaValue

5.1.5 Off-Flavors,FoodTaints

5.2 AromaAnalysis.........................................

5.2.1 AromaIsolation.........................................

5.2.1.1 Distillation, Extraction...................................

5.2.1.2 GasExtraction..........................................

5.2.1.3 HeadspaceAnalysis

5.2.2 SensoryRelevance

5.2.2.1 AromaExtractDilutionAnalysis(AEDA)...................

5.2.2.2 HeadspaceGCOlfactometry..............................

5.2.3 Enrichment

5.2.4 ChemicalStructure......................................

5.2.5 EnantioselectiveAnalysis.................................

5.2.6 Quantitative Analysis, Aroma Values.......................

5.2.6.1 IsotopicDilutionAnalysis(IDA)

5.2.6.2 AromaValues(AV)......................................

5.2.7 AromaModel,OmissionExperiments

5.3 Individual Aroma Compounds. xviii Contents

5.3.1 NonenzymaticReactions

5.3.1.1 Carbonyl Compounds

5.3.1.2 Pyranones.

5.3.1.3 Furanones.

5.3.1.4 Thiols,Thioethers,Di-andTrisulfides......................

5.3.1.5 Thiazoles

5.3.1.6 Pyrroles,Pyridines

5.3.1.7 Pyrazines

5.3.1.8 Amines................................................

5.3.1.9 Phenols................................................

5.3.2 EnzymaticReactions

5.3.2.1 Carbonyl Compounds, Alcohols...........................

5.3.2.2 Hydrocarbons, Esters....................................

5.3.2.3 Lactones...............................................

5.3.2.4 Terpenes...............................................

5.3.2.5 Volatile Sulfur Compounds...............................

5.3.2.6 Pyrazines

5.3.2.7 Skatole,p-Cresol........................................

5.4 Interactions with Other Food Constituents

5.4.1 Lipids.................................................

5.4.2 Proteins, Polysaccharides

5.5 NaturalandSyntheticFlavorings

5.5.1 RawMaterialsforEssences...............................

5.5.1.1 EssentialOils...........................................

5.5.1.2 Extracts,Absolues

5.5.1.3 Distillates

5.5.1.4 MicrobialAromas.......................................

5.5.1.5 Synthetic Natural Aroma Compounds

5.5.1.6 Synthetic Aroma Compounds

5.5.2 Essences...............................................

5.5.3 AromasfromPrecursors..................................

5.5.4 Stability of Aromas

5.5.5 EncapsulationofAromas.................................

5.6 RelationshipsBetweenStructureandOdor

5.6.1 GeneralAspects

5.6.2 Carbonyl Compounds

5.6.3 AlkylPyrazines.........................................

5.7 References.............................................

6 Vitamins..............................................

6.1 Foreword

6.2 Fat-SolubleVitamins

6.2.1 Retinol(VitaminA)

6.2.1.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.2.1.2 Requirement,Occurrence.................................

6.2.1.3 Stability, Degradation

6.2.2 Calciferol(VitaminD)

6.2.2.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.2.3 α-Tocopherol (Vitamin E) Contents xix

6.2.3.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.2.4 Phytomenadione (Vitamin K 1 Phylloquinone)................

6.2.4.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3 Water-SolubleVitamins

6.3.1 Thiamine (Vitamin B 1 )...................................

6.3.1.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.2 Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2 )..................................

6.3.2.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.3 Pyridoxine (Pyridoxal, Vitamin B 6 )

6.3.3.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.4 Nicotinamide(Niacin)

6.3.4.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.5 PantothenicAcid........................................

6.3.5.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.6 Biotin

6.3.6.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.7 FolicAcid

6.3.7.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.8 Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B 12 )............................

6.3.8.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.3.9 L-AscorbicAcid(VitaminC)..............................

6.3.9.1 BiologicalRole.........................................

6.4 References.............................................

7 Minerals..............................................

7.1 Foreword

7.2 MainElements

7.2.1 Sodium................................................

7.2.2 Potassium.............................................. xx Contents

7.2.3 Magnesium

7.2.4 Calcium

7.2.5 Chloride...............................................

7.2.6 Phosphorus............................................

7.3 TraceElements

7.3.1 GeneralRemarks........................................

7.3.2 IndividualTraceElements

7.3.2.1 Iron...................................................

7.3.2.2 Copper................................................

7.3.2.3 Zinc

7.3.2.4 Manganese.............................................

7.3.2.5 Cobalt.................................................

7.3.2.6 Chromium

7.3.2.7 Selenium

7.3.2.8 Molybdenum

7.3.2.9 Nickel.................................................

7.3.2.10 Fluorine

7.3.2.11 Iodine.................................................

7.3.3 Ultra-traceElements.....................................

7.3.3.1 Tin

7.3.3.2 Aluminum

7.3.3.3 Boron

7.3.3.4 Silicon................................................

7.3.3.5 Arsenic................................................

7.4 MineralsinFoodProcessing

7.5 References.............................................

8 Food Additives.........................................

8.1 Foreword

8.2 Vitamins...............................................

8.3 AminoAcids...........................................

8.4 Minerals...............................................

8.5 AromaSubstances.......................................

8.6 FlavorEnhancers........................................

8.6.1 Monosodium Glutamate (MSG)...........................

8.6.2 5 ′-Nucleotides..........................................

8.6.3 Maltol.................................................

8.6.4 Compounds with a Cooling Effect

8.7 Sugar Substitutes........................................

8.8 Sweeteners.............................................

8.8.1 SweetTaste:StructuralRequirements

8.8.1.1 Structure–Activity Relationships in Sweet Compounds

8.8.1.2 Synergism

8.8.2 Saccharin

8.8.3 Cyclamate

8.8.4 Monellin.

8.8.5 Thaumatins

8.8.6 CurculinandMiraculin

8.8.7 Gymnema silvestreExtract................................

8.8.8 Stevioside..............................................

Food Chemistry

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