DUTY71The writings of Duns Scotus are
characterized as extremely complex and
lengthy, which earned him the nickname
“Subtle Doctor.” The term “dunce” also
originated as a play on his name. An
example of his dense writing style can
be seen in his attempt to prove God’s
existence, which emphasizes how God
can only be known a posteriori. His proof
is acclaimed as one of the most compre-
hensive and meticulous proofs made for
God’s existence during the Middle Ages.
Duns Scotus’ theological writings
emphasized the divine will, but he also
devoted considerable time to writings
on the process of redemption and the
Virgin Mary. Although Duns Scotus was
a theologian, he was highly dedicated to
using philosophy to understand God
and the world. In the field of philosophy
he is greatly venerated for his work in
logic, but he is best known for his contri-
butions to metaphysics. Some of his most
well-known works include the Ordinatio,
Quaestiones Quodlibetales, Quaestionnes
Subtilissimae in Metaphysicam, and
Collationes.
DURKHEIM, ÉMILE (1858–1917).
Durkheim is widely considered the father
of sociology, with his sociology seamlessly
running into philosophy. Durkheim was
highly interested in the way societies
maintain cohesion. He posited the impor-
tance of social facts, that is, phenomena
that exist independent of and external to
individuals. Social facts are much more
useful and powerful than individual
actions, according to Durkheim, because
they are more objective and reflect a
collective consciousness. His analysis
of religion stressed the social function of
beliefs and rites in establishing codes
of what is acceptable and forbidden. His
works include The Rules of Sociological
Method (1895), The Division of Labour
in Society (1893), Suicide (1897), The
Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1912),
Education and Sociology (1922), Sociology
and Philosophy (1924), Moral Education
(1925), and Lessons of Sociology (1950).DUTY. From the Latin debere for “to
owe.” In moral theory, duties and obliga-
tions (the terms are not used synony-
mously) are sometimes contrasted with
virtues and vices. Obligations involve
states of character and emotions (passions,
the disposition to pleasure or sorrow),
whereas duties are sometimes thought to
have normative authority no matter what
one’s emotions or character.