SYNCRETISM223that religion is the result of an evolution-
ary process. In each case, religion’s truth-
claims may be dismissed once it is seen
why these claims are proffered.
Others have suggested that the herme-
neutics of suspicion is beneficial to both
philosophical theology and to the practice
of religion. Merold Westphal and Bruce
Benson, for example, have argued that
suspicion helps expose self-deception and
idolatry, especially the idolizing of ideol-
ogies. See also FEUERBACH; FREUD;
MARX; and NIETZSCHE.
SYMBOL. The word “symbol” is derived
from two Greek words meaning “bring-
ing together,” suggesting the bringing
together of two otherwise unrelated
things so that one comes to signify the
other. In theology, sacraments are some-
times taken as symbols of the mystery of
Christ’s incarnation. In philosophy, the
most important figure for understanding
symbols is Charles Peirce. Peirce’s semiot-
ics distinguishes between three classes of
signs: icons, indices, and symbols. An icon
signifies by being somehow like the thing
signified, as a picture of the sun might be
an icon for the sun itself. An index signi-
fies not by similarity but dynamically, as
pointing with one’s finger at the sun is
an index of the direction in which it lies,
or as a sundial indicates the time of day.
A symbol signifies by being a general rule,
as for instance words regularly signify
the things they name; so the words “sun,”
“soleil,” “sol,” and “helios,” all symbolize
the star nearest our planet. Symbols may
thus have an arbitrary relation to the
thing signified, and they do not need to
be like or dynamically related to it.SYNCRETISM. The combination of
various beliefs and practices to form new
ones. The term is usually applied to
religions, but it may also be applied to
philosophies. The Caribbean religion of
Santería, for example, combines elements
of Roman Catholicism and of Yoruba
religious practice. Similarly, Augustine’s
thought displays syncretism in its com-
bining of Christian theology, Ciceronian
rhetorical theory, and Neoplatonist
metaphysics.