Dictionary of Philosophy of Religion

20

ARENDT, HANNAH

(1242–1243), On Truth (1256–1259), On
Potency (1259–1263), Summa Contra
Gentiles (1259–1263), On the Divine
Names (1261), On Evil (1263–1268),
Summa Theologica (1265–1272), On the
Eternity of the World (1270), On Separate
Substances (1271) and numerous com-
mentaries on works of Aristotle. Aquinas’
prolific work amounts to the greatest
repository of medieval philosophy by a
single thinker.

ARENDT, HANNAH (1906–1975).
Jewish political theorist from Germany.
She studied under Heidegger and Jaspers
and developed a profound critique of
social and political injustice in the twen-
tieth century. Her analysis of cruelty
in The Origins of Totalitarianism (1951),
The Human Condition (1958), and On
Violence (1970) build a strong case for a
nonviolent democratic culture.

ARETĒ. Greek, “excellence, virtue, good-
ness.” The qualities that constitute a good
human being: wisdom (phronēsis), mod-
eration (sōphrosynē), courage (andreia),
justice (dikaiodikaosynē), etc. Discussion
of these virtues was the core of classical
Greek ethics and philosophy. Plato,
famously, maintained the unity of the vir-
tues. If one lacks the virtue of wisdom, for
example, one cannot be said to have the
virtue of courage. Some modern virtue
theorists question this thesis and allow
for a fragmentation of virtues.

Historically virtue theory addresses

such questions as: Can virtue be taught?

Is there a difference between moral and

intellectual virtues? For example, are there

significant differences between intellec-

tual courage and courage involving phys-

ical action such as bravery on a battlefield?

Can utilitarianism allow for the good

of virtues? How do religious or secular

worldviews inform the theory of virtues?

For example, in religions that involve a

Creator, it seems that gratitude for the

creation is a virtue, whereas in world-

views with no Creator such gratitude

would not be a virtue.

ARIANISM / ARIAN HERESY. The

belief (espoused by Arius, the Presbyter

of Alexandria (256–336 CE), from whom

the heresy takes its name) that the Father

and the Son (Jesus) are not of the same

substance. Arianism has the effect of

subordinating the Son to the Father. This

view was deemed heretical at the Council

of Nicaea in 325 CE. In the context of this

disagreement, the doctrine of the trinity

was formulated. The orthodox view was

established as homoousias: the three per-

sons of the trinity are of the same sub-

stance (ousia). See also ATHANASIUS.

ARIUS. See ARIANISM / ARIAN

HERESY.

ARISTOTLE (384–322 BCE). Aristotle

and Plato are the two most influential