CHRIST45may be used in reference to texts; acting
on the principle leads one to interpret a
text in the best light, revealing a plausible
thesis.
CHENG HAO (a.k.a. CH’ENG HAO)
(1032–1085). Cheng Hao, along with
his brother Cheng Yi (1033–1107), was
a pioneer in the development of Neo-
Confucian philosophy. A student of Zhou
Dunyi (1017–1073), Cheng Hao accepted
the dualism of li (principle) and qi
(matter or material force), but unlike his
brother, he emphasized li. Cheng Hao
developed the concept of Tianli (principle
of Heaven), a term that appears in the
Book of Rites (Liji), as something akin to
natural law. Unlike his brother, Cheng
Hao emphasized the unity of humanity
and the cosmos, and he believed that
introspection was the means of uncover-
ing this truth. Influenced by Buddhist
meditation, Cheng Hao was a strong
influence on the development of the
idealist strain in Neo-Confucianism, cul-
minating in the philosophy of Wang
Yangming (1472–1529).
CHENG YI (a.k.a. CH’ENG I) (1033–
1107). Cheng Yi, along with his brother
Cheng Hao (1032–1085), was a pioneer
in the development of Neo-Confucian
philosophy. Both brothers studied with
Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073), who refined
the concept of the dualism of li (princi-
ple) and qi (matter or material force).
Unlike Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi emphasized
empirical observation rather than intro-
spection as a means of attaining knowl-
edge of li. His school came to be known
as the School of Principle (Lixue).
Cheng Yi emphasized participation in
human affairs, particularly public service.
Although he declined high office, he
criticized politically powerful officials,
for which he was twice censured and
twice pardoned. He greatly influenced the
great Neo-Confucian synthesizer Zhu Xi
(1130–1200), and the orthodox school of
Neo-Confucianism came to be known as
the Cheng-Zhu School.CHI’I. See QI.CHISHOLM, RODERICK (1916–1995).
A Platonist, a defender of libertarian
freedom, and an opponent of reductive
materialism and utilitarianism. Chisholm
also outlined ways in which theism could
envision God defeating evil. His works
include Perceiving (1957), Realism and
the Background of Phenomenology (1960),
The Ethics of Requirement (1964), Theory
of Knowledge (1966), The Problem of the
Criterion (1973), Empirical Knowledge
(ed. with R. J. Swartz 1973), Person and
Object (1976), and The First Person
(1981).CHRIST. (Gk. christos) A translation of
the Hebrew term Messiah, which means