Encyclopedia of Buddhism

careful carving. Other centers, many of which were be-
gun after the dissolution of the Northern Wei empire
in the mid-sixth century, include Gongxian and Xi-
angtangshan in Hebei, Tianlongshan in Shansi, and
other sites in Shandong. Numerous smaller excava-
tions, often consisting of a single cave, are also known
at many sites in northern China. A few sites are also
found in the south.

Although not common after the tenth century, cave
sanctuary construction flourished in the southwestern
province of Sichuan during the Tang and Song
(960–1279) dynasties. Several centers are found near
Dazu. The Sichuan caves contain distinctive imagery
including scenes of daily life, Chan OXHERDING PIC-
TURES, and icons common in later esoteric traditions.

Carefully assembled with cut-stone panels,
SO ̆KKURAM, located on top of Mount T’oham on the
eastern outskirts of Kyo ̆ngju, is a Korean response to
Indian cave sanctuaries. In contrast to India and
China, there were no natural caves in Korea, or at least
none suitable, and So ̆kkuram was entirely manmade.
Constructed between 751 and 774, So ̆kkuram has a

round main hall that opens to a rectangular anteroom.

A large free-standing buddha seated in the center of

the main hall is attended by bodhisattvas, guardians,

and other figures carved on the walls in high relief.

See also:Monastic Architecture

Bibliography

Caswell, James, O. Written and Unwritten: A New History of the

Buddhist Caves at Yungang.Vancouver: University of British

Columbia Press, 1988.

Chu
goku Sekkutsu (The Grotto Art of China).A series in Japan-

ese and Chinese on major Chinese sites. Beijing: Wenwu

Chubansha; Tokyo: Heibonsha, 1980–.

Dehejia, Vidya. Early Buddhist Rock Temples: A Chronology.

Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1972.

Howard, Angela Falco. Summit of Treasures: Buddhist Cave Art

of Dazu, China.Trumbull, CT: Weatherhill, 2001.

Mitra, Debala. Buddhist Monuments.Calcutta: Sahitay Samsad,

1971.

DENISEPATRYLEIDY

CAVESANCTUARIES

The late-seventh-century Fengxiansi at Longmen, Henan Province, China. The seated Buddha is fifty-five feet high. © Robert D. Fiala,
Concordia University, Seward, Nebraska. Reproduced by permission.