obtained on the begging round is often deliberately
mixed together to form an unappetizing paste.
The san ̇gha was intended to be dependent on the
LAITYfor its food, and the VINAYAstresses that monks
and nuns were to eat only what was given. They were
not to produce their own food, nor even to consume
food that they found. The daily begging round ensured
that the san ̇gha was always made aware of its respon-
sibilities to lay donors, as well as offering ample op-
portunities for laypeople to make merit from DANA
(GIVING).
The vinaya and later East Asian monastic regula-
tions also have numerous rules about how food is to
be consumed in the monastery. According to the
vinaya, monks and nuns should not eat solid food af-
ter noon, although in East Asia monks do take sup-
plementary meals.
Despite the first precept against killing, a keen
awareness of compassion toward animals and insects,
and the consistent denigration of occupations such as
butcher, hunter, or fisherman, a vegetarian diet was
not required of the early san ̇gha in India. In southern
Asia and Tibet, meat given to monks is permitted, un-
less the animal was killed specifically for them. Ma-
hayana sutras such as the NIRVANASUTRAand the
LAN ̇KAVATARA-SUTRAspoke out strongly against meat
eating. These texts, in combination with the precepts
of the apocryphal FANWANG JING(BRAHMA’SNET
SUTRA), decisively affected the monastic diet in China
and Korea. Monks and nuns in those countries are
strictly vegetarian. In Japan monks are extremely un-
likely to be vegetarian, although there is still a tradi-
tion of Buddhist vegetarian cuisine based on Chinese
recipes. In addition to meat, Chinese and Korean Bud-
dhists also avoid the “five pungent herbs” (garlic,
onions, ginger, Chinese chives, and leeks), which are
thought to overstimulate the emotions and interfere
with meditation.
In Chinese and Korean monasteries, everyday meals
consist mostly of rice and vegetables. On festive days
glutinous rice or noodles may be served in place of
white rice, and the monks may receive other treats of
cakes or candies. Vegetarian feasts sponsored by lay
donors also feature more variety of dishes. In Japan
certain temples have become associated with special
types of food served on festive days. At Sanpoji in
Kyoto, for example, once a year daikon (white
radishes) are boiled in large vats and given to parish-
ioners. It is said that they prevent paralysis. Steamed
rice with citrus peel, a favorite dish of NICHIREN
(1222–1282), is also served.See also:Ascetic Practices; Merit and Merit-MakingBibliography
Buswell, Robert E. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist Prac-
tice in Contemporary Korea.Princeton, NJ: Princeton Uni-
versity Press, 1992.
Chapple, Christopher Key. Nonviolence to Animals, Earth, and
Self in Asian Traditions.Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1993.
Mather, Richard. “The Bonze’s Begging Bowl: Eating Practices
in Buddhist Monasteries in Medieval India and China.”
Journal of the American Oriental Society101, no. 4 (1981):
417–424.
Ruegg, David Seyfort. “Ahimsaand Vegetarianism in the His-
tory of Buddhism.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola
Rahula.London: Gordon Fraser, 1980.
Welch, Holmes. The Practice of Chinese Buddhism.Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.JAMESA. BENNDIETA young monk prays before his meal in Mandalay, Myanmar
(Burma). © Owen Franken/Corbis. Reproduced by permission.