Wayman, Alex. Ethics of Tibet: Bodhisattva Section of Tsong-Kha-
Pa’s Lam Rim Chen Mo.Albany: State University of New
York Press, 1991.
Yin-shun. The Way to Buddhahood: Instructions from a Modern
Chinese Master,tr. Wing Yeung. Boston: Wisdom, 1998.
BARBARAE. REEDETIQUETTE
Models of polite behavior appear throughout Buddhist
literature, as when disciples of the Buddha bow and
circumambulate the Buddha, or when preachers of the
dharma are treated with respect. While the Vinaya
Pitaka is the scriptural source of guidance on monas-
tic discipline, there is also a much larger written and
oral VINAYAtradition, consisting of commentaries, di-
gests, and ad hoc instructions. Whereas Vinaya texts
define the fundamental nature of the SAN ̇GHA, the term
etiquettetends to apply to less crucial, and yet more
pervasive, rule-governed behavior: posture when
standing, the direction of the gaze, sequences of se-
niority in the dining hall, how to hold chopsticks,
terms of polite address, how to bow. In daily life, this
attention to detail does not always have a scriptural ba-
sis, and etiquette varies widely by region, time period,
sect, and even from monastery to monastery.
Etiquette is not only a matter of interpersonal rela-
tions, but also governs maintenance of the material ob-
jects of Buddhism, such as robes, bowls, icons, and
monastery boundaries. Changes in behavior serve to
demarcate sacred space, for example, when MONKSin
Southeast Asia roll down their robes to cover both
arms when they exit the monastery, and roll them up
to expose one arm when they return. Walking through
doors is also an occasion for RITUAL. In China, the act
of entering is governed by a ritual code, and behavior
is modified according to one’s location inside or out-
side. One is careful to step over the “bridge” or “sad-
dle” of the doorway, which in some cases can be quite
a high step. If the front façade has three large doors,
one enters through those on the sides, not by the cen-
tral door. When entering by the left of the three gates,
one should put the left foot in first; if through the right
gate, the right foot is first. In some cases, shoes are re-
moved or changed. Stepping into the temple space, the
first act should be a bow. The Jiaojie xinxue biqiu
xinghu lüyi(Admonitions for Novice Monks on the Be-
havioral Norms of the Vinaya), a guide to monastic eti-
quette by the Tang dynasty monk DAOXUAN(596–667),
instructs: “When entering the monastery gate, bow, and
then kneel, and recite the customary praises to the
Buddha.... Gather up your sitting-cloth, join palms
and bend the body. Then, with a serious expression,
walk slowly on one side of the walkway, looking ahead.”
When leaving, “perform obeisance according to the
correct method: three bows before the Buddha, one
bow as you reach the gate, one more bow outside the
gate. When there are a few monks, bow once to each
in order. When there are many monks, bow to the
group three times.” When circumambulating an image
or sacred site, one should move clockwise with palms
together, and with one’s right shoulder to the object of
reverence, possibly with the right shoulder bared.
The most common Buddhist polite gesture is the
añjali,also known as the namaskaraor namas te,
(Japanese, Gassho; Thai, wai). The palms of the hands
are pressed together in front of the body and the head
or torso leans forward to a greater or lesser degree. In
many cases, the height of the hands indicates the ac-
tor’s perceived or intended social position vis-à-vis the
other person: The hands are held higher when gestur-
ing toward people “higher-up” than oneself. In an añ-
jalito a fully ordained monk the hands are usually held
at the forehead, compared to in front of the chin when
offered to most laity. When an adult offers an añjalito
return the greeting of a child, the hands are held at
heart level.
In some parts of Asia, particular devotion may be
shown by placing one’s hands on the feet of a monk.
As with the spatial distinction of height, the timing of
this gesture also matters: The subordinate initiates the
gesture.
Conversely, the fact that monks do not bow to laity
(not even to the king) is a means of asserting monk-
hood as an ideal social order outside of the world. Con-
flicts of etiquette have occurred, such as the persistent
debates over monks not bowing to their own parents
or to the Chinese emperor. These debates brought
Buddhist and Confucian models of etiquette into di-
rect conflict. The virulence of these debates indicates
the importance of etiquette, as arguments for and
against drew upon fundamental pillars of Buddhist or
Confucian doctrine.
Members of the ordained community continue to
perform obeisance to each other, however, and Bud-
dhist scriptures encode the orthodox hierarchy: All
nuns, no matter how senior, bow to all monks, no mat-
ter how junior. Novices bow to the fully ordained, and
juniors bow to seniors. Seniority is measured inETIQUETTE