the LOTUSSUTRA(SADDHARMAPUNDARIKA-SUTRA) and
the teachings of ZHIYI(538–597), founder of the par-
ent Tiantai tradition in China. But Saichoalso adopted
esoteric teachings, which were introduced into Japan
by his contemporary KUKAI(774–835). Later genera-
tions of Tendai leaders such as ENNIN(794–864) and
Enchin (814–891) traveled to China, trained exten-
sively in esoteric Buddhism, and brought back what
they learned to Mount Hiei. The ideas and doctrines
proposed by them, and also by Annen (841–889?), a
major systematizer of Tendai thought, yoked esoteric
teachings inextricably to Tendai doctrine. With these
teachings the conceptual framework of Kenmitsu Bud-
dhism was firmly established on Mount Hiei. In the
tenth century, as members of Kyoto’s aristocracy en-
tered the Tendai clergy in increasing numbers and oc-
cupied positions of ecclesiastical authority, Mount Hiei
inculcated its Kenmitsu understanding of Buddhism
in them. Under their leadership Mount Hiei rose to
eminence and began to exercise considerable social,
political, and economic influence in Japan. Through-
out the medieval period Mount Hiei remained a force
to be reckoned with and, wherever it asserted its in-
fluence, it extended its Kenmitsu construction of Bud-
dhism. Kuroda claimed that the crowning formulation
of Kenmitsu Buddhism on Mount Hiei was ORIGINAL
ENLIGHTENMENT(HONGAKU) thought, which became
prominent around the twelfth century. This strand of
teaching was built on the idea of the inherent and im-
mediate enlightenment of all things, and it was pre-
served through master–disciple lineages and secret
transmissions. But other scholars have questioned
Kuroda’s claim, pointing out that these teachings were
not considered esoteric Buddhism proper, but rather
a tradition of exoteric doctrine on Mount Hiei.
The Shingon and Nara temples were also included
in the framework of Kenmitsu Buddhism. Kukai, the
founder of Shingon in Japan, was largely responsible
for introducing the vocabulary of esoteric and exoteric
Buddhism and developing the discourse around which
the Kenmitsu order could coalesce. In his hierarchy of
teachings he placed esoteric Buddhism at the top,
above the exoteric teachings of Tendai and various
Nara schools of thought—Hosso, Sanron, and Kegon.
These views and this vocabulary became the default re-
ligious premises of the institutions that Kukai orga-
nized, Toji and the Shingon monastery on Mount
Koya. The temples of Nara also opened their doors to
the wealth of rituals, initiations, and esoteric practices
that Kukai commanded. His establishment in 822 of
the Kanjodohall at the powerful Todaiji temple, where
esoteric initiations were to be performed, marked the
beginning of Nara’s full-scale appropriation of esoteric
Buddhism. Hence, throughout the medieval period the
Shingon and Nara institutions constructed their sys-
tems of doctrine and exoteric thought on a foundation
of esoteric ritual and practice, just as Mount Hiei did.
Though Kuroda tended to highlight the role of Mount
Hiei more, it is clear that the Nara temples also flour-
ished in this Kenmitsu culture, and built up not only
religious authority but also social, political, and eco-
nomic influence.Kenmitsu Buddhism, as it pervaded the major reli-
gious institutions, emerged as the orthodox worldview
of medieval Japan. It also functioned as a legitimizing
ideology for the social and political order. The inter-
action between religious and nonreligious authorities
occurred at several levels and in various modes. Soci-
ety at large recognized Buddhism’s capacity to engage
the spirit world and to deliver humans from illusion
and misfortune. The rituals and practices of esoteric
Buddhism were largely aimed at these goals—from
actualizing buddhahood in the body itself (sokushin
jobutsu) to securing good fortune and averting
calamity. Hence, the imperial court, aristocracy, war-
rior government, and other agents of power relied on
the Buddhist clergy to perform these functions in their
behalf. They in turn became major adherents, sup-
porters, and patrons of Buddhism—sponsoring ritu-
als, building temples, and sending offspring into the
ranks of clergy. But medieval Buddhism did not
merely provide religious support to the privileged and
powerful; it also served as one of the governing agents
of Japan. That is why Kuroda included the large reli-
gious institutions among the medieval ruling elites
(kenmon), alongside the imperial court and the war-
rior government. Each had its own sphere of influence,
claim to authority, network of functionaries, eco-
nomic base in the estate system, and means of en-
forcement. The religious sector, unlike the others, also
used RITUALand thaumaturgic powers to assert its in-
fluence. But none of the three could gain ascendancy
over the other two, and thus had to work in collabora-
tion with them, even while maneuvering for advantage
whenever possible. Kenmitsu Buddhism articulated
the nature of this relationship as the interdependence
and mutual support of Buddhist teachings (Buppo)
and royal law (obo). Each flourished only when they
worked together, likened by medieval apologists to the
two wheels of a cart or the two wings of a bird. This
ideology of mutual dependence and benefit was artic-
ulated by the Buddhist establishment, but also em-EXOTERIC-ESOTERIC(KENMITSU) BUDDHISM INJAPAN