tation, then, the sexual transformation is not to be
perceived as a necessary step or prerequisite for bud-
dhahood, but rather, as a teaching device—a playful
performance by means of which the female bodhisattva
demonstrates to her male challenger the essenceless-
ness of all dharmas. This interpretation is supported
by the fact that the sexual transformation is often ac-
companied by statements asserting the truth of empti-
ness and the ultimate irrelevance of all gender
distinctions. It is also compromised, however, by the
fact that it is always women who transform themselves
into men (not vice versa), and that most of these trans-
formations appear to be real and permanent. Episodes
involving the theme of sexual transformation thus ul-
timately remain ambiguous. Nevertheless, they do at
least demonstrate that the Mahayana’s insistence on
emptiness and the relative nature of all distinctions was
explicitly and frequently applied to gender. Similar
ideas are also found in schools that derive from the
Mahayana; in the CHANSCHOOL, for example, the ir-
relevance of gender in light of all beings’ possession of
buddha-nature is a common theme.
In addition to the positive portrayal of female char-
acters, Mahayana thought also revalorizes feminine
gender on the symbolic level by identifying prajñapara-
mitaor the “perfection of wisdom” as a female god-
dess. The goddess Prajñaparamita is worshiped and
praised as the “mother of all buddhas” (since it is she
who “gives birth” to buddhahood) and she is fre-
quently represented in Pala-period Buddhist art. Since
prajñais a feminine noun, wisdom itself is also seen as
a feminine quality and is often paired with a mascu-
line quality equally necessary for the attainment of
buddhahood—compassionate skillful means or UPAYA
(a masculine noun). The attainment of buddhahood is
then envisioned symbolically as the union of male and
female forces, whose complementarity and interde-
pendence are emphasized. This type of gender sym-
bolism becomes significantly more pronounced,
however, with the advent of tantra.
Gender in tantric Buddhism
Tantric or VAJRAYANABuddhism represents a stark de-
parture from both the mainstream and Mahayana tra-
ditions in its emphasis on the category of gender.
Gender, in fact, becomes absolutely central: Whereas
other forms of Buddhism may have certain attitudes
about gender, tantric thought is inseparable from its
gender ideology. This makes it difficult to isolate the
discussion of gender from a more thorough consider-
ation of tantric philosophy and practice. Nevertheless,
this discussion will limit itself to a consideration of
gender symbolism, female roles, and male attitudes
toward women characteristic of the tantric tradition.
The gender symbolism involving the union of male
and female qualities to produce the ultimate goal of
enlightenment (noted above for Mahayana thought)
comes to full force and becomes explicitly sexual in
tantric Buddhism, especially in the highest and most
esoteric class of tantras, the Anuttarayoga Tantras
(Highest Yoga Tantras). These texts are pervaded by a
sexual symbolism in which the female (often symbol-
ized as a lotus) stands for prajñaor wisdom, the male
(often symbolized as a vajraor thunderbolt) stands for
upayaor skillful means, and male-female sexual union
stands for the joining of wisdom and means in the great
bliss of perfect enlightenment. In tantric art, this is of-
ten symbolized by depicting buddhas and bodhisattvas
in sexual union with female consorts. In Tibet, where
they were to become very popular, these depictions are
known as yab-yumor “father-mother” images. The
same symbolism is also physically enacted through a
highly esoteric form of yoga involving ritualized sex-
ual intercourse between male and female lay tantric
practitioners, who together strive to produce the great
bliss of perfect enlightenment within their own bod-
ies. Even monastic tantric practitioners bound by the
vow of celibacy engage in this sexual yoga—although
in their case, the union takes place within the medita-
tor’s own mind. The symbolism of sexual union is thus
basic to tantric ideology and practice.
Within this sexual symbolism, it is the polarity,
complementarity, and interdependence of the two gen-
ders that is emphasized. Buddhahood is envisioned as
a perfect integration of male and female qualities,
which join together seamlessly yet retain their distinc-
tive natures. Philosophically, the union of male and
female also stands for the overcoming of all dualistic
thinking (including distinctions of gender) and the at-
tainment of an enlightened perspective of emptiness.
At the same time, however, female gender alone is
sometimes explicitly privileged. Thus, for the first time
in the Buddhist tradition, we see the depiction of true
female buddhas such as Vajrayogin, sometimes in
consort with male partners but often alone, as well as
other divine and powerful female figures such as god-
desses, yoginls,and DAKINIS.Such images were made
the object of complex visualization and meditation
practices, as well as worship and cult.
The dramatic revalorization of female gender that
is characteristic of tantric symbolism also applies to
men’s and women’s roles as depicted in tantric texts.GENDER