modern Rinzai lineages in Japan are descended. For
Zen monks, he is known as an artist, scholar, and sys-
tematizer of DOUBTin KOANstudy. He stressed that
koan introspection, especially the cultivation of doubt,
was the only means to SATORI(AWAKENING) and that
initial sudden awakening had to be followed with more
koan study (gogo) to deepen the experience.
See also:Chan School
Bibliography
Yampolsky, Philip B., trans. The Zen Master Hakuin: Selected
Writings. New York and London: Columbia University
Press, 1971.
JOHNJORGENSENHAN YONGUN
Han Yongun (Manhae, 1879–1944) was a monk, poet,
and critic of the Japanese colonial rule of Korea. He
was born in present-day Hongso ̆ng in South Ch’ung-
ch’o ̆ng province in Korea. He took full ordination in
1905 and devoted his life to Buddhist reformation, ex-
ploring ways of Buddhist engagement in society. By
aiming to make Buddhism socially engaged, and thus
accessible to the public, his Choso ̆n Pulgyo yusin non
(Treatise on the Reformation of Korean Buddhism) pro-
vided a rationale and blueprint for the modern reform
of the Korean order. Areas of reform included: mod-
ernization of the monastery education, development
of propagation methods, simplicity of rituals, and cen-
tralization of the SAN ̇GHA. Han offered leadership to
the Buddhist youth movement that sought further
Buddhist reforms and the san ̇gha’s independence from
the Japanese regime.
In 1914 Han published the Pulgyo taejo ̆n(Great
Canon of Buddhism), a digest of Buddhist scriptures in
Korean vernacular intended to provide the gist of Bud-
dhist teachings to laypeople and to help guide their re-
ligious lives. As a certified So ̆n master, Han emphasized
mind cultivation through So ̆n (Chinese, Chan) medi-
tation, considered the fountainhead of all other activ-
ities in life.
In addition, Han’s social and literary activities oc-
cupied a great part of his life. He was one of the thirty-
three leaders of the March First Movement, which
proclaimed Korean independence from imperial Japan
in 1919, and he assisted in drafting the Korean “Dec-
laration of Independence” for the movement. In 1926
he published a collection of his poems, Nim u ̆i chim-
muk(The Silence of the Beloved). This collection earned
him a name as the first modern nationalist poet. He
also left 163 Chinese poems, thirty-two sijopoetic com-
positions, and five novels. In 1944 Manhae died of
palsy at the age of sixty-five.See also:Chan School; Engaged Buddhism; Korea; Na-
tionalism and BuddhismBibliography
An Pyong-jik. “Han Yongun’s Liberalism: An Analysis of the
Reformation of Korean Buddhism.” Korea Journal19, no.
12 (1979): 13–18.
Han Yongun cho ̆njip(The Collected Works of Han Yongun).
Seoul: Sin’gu Munhwasa, 1973.
Lee, Peter, trans. The Silence of Love: Twentieth-Century Korean
Poetry.Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii, 1980.PORIPARKHEART SUTRAA text of fewer than three hundred Chinese characters
in its earlier short version, the Heart Sutra(Sanskrit,
Prajñaparamitahrdaya; Chinese, Boruo boluomiduo xin
jing) was given to the great translator XUANZANG(ca.
600–664) to recite for protection on his pilgrimage to
and from the holy land in India. Through his success-
ful use of the sutra and its concise eloquence, the text
became the single most commonly recited and studied
scripture in East Asian Buddhism. The Heart Sutrais
thought to embody the most profound teaching of
prajñaparamita, the perfection of PRAJN
A(WISDOM),
and it is recited in rituals by participants in the CHAN
SCHOOL, the TIANTAI SCHOOL, and other traditions.
The longer version of the Heart Sutrahas a con-
ventional sutra opening in which ANANDArecites the
teaching as given by S ́akyamuni Buddha on Vulture
Peak, followed by a formal conclusion. The short ver-
sion lacks these framing elements, consisting solely of
Avalokites ́vara’s explanation of the identity of form
and S ́UNYATA(EMPTINESS), as well as a MANTRA. Based
on literary evidence, Jan Nattier has argued that the
short version was constructed initially in Chinese and
then translated into Sanskrit. If correct, this would be
an otherwise unknown sequence in Buddhist literary
history.HANYONGUN