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STEPHENF. TEISERHELLS, IMAGES OF
Images of Buddhist HELLSare found largely in Central
and East Asia. Although descriptions of hell exist within
early Buddhist literature, hell was not a popular sub-
ject for depiction in India. The earliest extant Chinese
images date to the fifth century and appear within rep-
resentations of Buddhist COSMOLOGY. These hell im-
ages are components of singular carved statues (often
referred to as cosmological buddhas), as well as larger
painted cave programs. The hells are hierarchically
placed at the bottom, with the earthly and heavenly
realms above. Although the Shiji jing(Scripture of Cos-
mology) is fairly lengthy in the number and description
of the various hells, the representations themselves are
abbreviated. Numerous hell scenes in various media
were produced between the seventh and eleventh cen-
turies and were preserved in the DUNHUANGcaves of
northwestern China. This hell imagery consists mainly
of three distinct iconographic programs: imagery re-
lated to Dizang Bodhisattva (Sanskrit, Ksitigarbha;
Japanese, JizoBosatsu), to the Ten Kings of Hell, and
to Mulian (Sanskrit, MAHAMAUDGALYAYANA).
Dizang and the Ten Kings of Hell
Images of Dizang Bodhisattva were often used in fu-
nerary rituals by relatives who viewed him as a savior
of souls trapped in the various hells. Dizang is shown
dressed either as a monk carrying a staff or as a princely
bodhisattva. A number of hanging silk paintings show
Dizang in the company of the Ten Kings of Hell, over
whom he presides. Yet it is also common for the Ten
Kings to be depicted independent of Dizang, ruling
over their respective courts. The Chinese term for hell,
diyu,translates as “subterranean prison,” and the Ten
Kings are thus depicted as judges. The exception is
King Yama, who is always in regal attire. Yama was the
original king of the Indian Buddhist underworld, and
it is in his court that the karmic mirror, showing an
individual’s deeds, is often found. Variations often
show all Ten Kings in royal trappings, leading to the
common usage of the term Ten Yamas.Monkey-faced
or military-attired attendants keep track of a soul’s
crimes and aid in meting out the appropriate punish-
ment. One common representational element found
in virtually all hell imagery is that of the naked sinner
in a cangue, a form of earthly punishment commonly
seen in medieval China and Japan. Also critical to hell
imagery is a preponderance of flames and blood. Yet
unlike hell in a Judeo-Christian sense, Buddhist hells
are not permanent, but a means to expiate bad KARMA
(ACTION) before moving on to the next REBIRTH.
Several hand scrolls depicting the Ten Kings were
found at Dunhuang. These scrolls hint at the usage of
hell imagery within a public sphere. Monks would ed-
ify the laity with visions of the torments of hell that
awaited them, or more importantly, their deceased rel-
atives. The belief in the apocryphal Shi wang jing
(Scripture of the Ten Kings) led to their worship as in-
tercessors who could move the deceased more quickly
through the realms of hell to the promised Pure Land.
Worship of the Ten Kings centers on the idea that each
soul passes in front of each of the kings at predeter-
mined points over a three-year duration. On these
days, offerings need to be made to each of the Ten
Kings. Besides hand scrolls, Ten Kings imagery also ex-
ists in smaller booklet format, indicating mass pro-
duction as well as a more personal use.
Depictions of hell far exceeded literary descriptions
in both variety and detail, a fact most likely due to anx-
iety for the welfare of the dead. In the Scripture on the
Ten Kings,no hells are actually described. Works can
be found that are consistent in their depiction of the
Ten Kings and their courts while greatly varying in the
tortures shown. The largest sculpted depiction of hell
scenes can be found at Baodingshan in Sichuan
province in China. The worshipper at Baodingshan is
confronted with an immediate reminder of how his
present actions will affect his future fate—a twenty-
five-foot-high sculpted depiction of the wheel of life,
of which the six destinies of rebirth are one portion.HELLS, IMAGES OF