Central and eastern Tibet
Whereas Ladakh and western Tibet were strongly in-
fluenced by the art of Kashmir, the Buddhist art of cen-
tral and eastern Tibet was in its formative period
stimulated by the introduction of Buddhism from In-
dia, via Nepal, and from Central Asia, and in its later
phase from China. Characteristic local styles were the
result of mingling adaptations with autochthonous tra-
ditions, especially in architecture.
The JO KHANGin Lhasa, its founding in the eighth
century attributed to King Srong btsan sgam po, is close
to Indian Gupta models. There are three stories over a
square plan, the third story probably constructed later.
The five inner chapels are surrounded by corridors for
circumambulation. The wooden chapel doors and
heavy columns are decorated with carvings resembling
a mid-seventh century Newari style. The projecting
Chinese-style roofs were built later. The principal
chapel contains a sculpture of the eastern tathagata,
AKSOBHYA, as its main image, with sculptures of
Amitabha and Maitreya in side chapels. The original
monumental murals are lost; the existing paintings
were executed in the twelfth century and show Tibetan
style with some Nepalese and Pala influences.
The temple complex of Bsam yas (Samye) in the
Tsangpo valley was founded in 779 by King Khri srong
lde btsan. The layout comprises several buildings and
four outer chörten(mchod rtens), or stupas, which were
based on mandala concepts. The three-storied central
temple (dbu rtse) symbolizes Mount Sumeru as axis
mundi. The circular perimeter wall stood for the chain
of mountains surrounding the world (lchags ri). The
differing architectural structures of the three stories re-
flect the pluralism of religious and stylistic sources
from India, Khotan, and China. Turrets at the four cor-
ners of the upper story transform it into a pañcayatana
structure. The wall paintings in the chapels symbolize
the ascent of the adept through the spiritual layers of
the Buddhist religion.
The extremely dilapidated temple of Yemar (Gye
dmar) in the Khangmar county, erected early in the
eleventh century, holds an important position in art
history. Three chapels inside a processional path (skor
lam) house larger than life-size clay figures of buddhas,
bodhisattvas, and guardian deities, which were origi-
nally colored and gilded. The figures are characterized
by fine molding of the faces and the folds of garments,
the latter featuring rich ornamental medallions show-
ing Central Asian influence. The figures represent a Ti-
betan substyle with Pala and Central Asian elements.
All the murals have disappeared.
A highlight of the later phase of Tibetan art is the
temple complex Dpal khor chos sde at Gyantse (Rgyal
rtse), formerly the third-largest city in Tibet. Gyantse
is crowned by a fortress (rdzong), destroyed in 1904 by
the Younghusband expedition, but partly recon-
structed. The temple complex was founded in 1418 by
a Gyantse prince and comprised many buildings and
eighteen colleges run by different Buddhist schools, in-
cluding SA SKYA(SAKYA), KARMA PA, Dge lugs (Geluk),
and others. Most of the buildings were destroyed dur-
ing the Cultural Revolution. Most important is the
building of the Sku ’bum, erected and decorated be-
tween 1427 and 1442. Its ground plan has the charac-
ter of a mandala and its four-storied elevation
resembles an “auspicious stupa with many doors,” the
so-called Bkra shis sgo mang mchod rten.The building
contains seventy-two temples and chapels that are dec-
orated with sculptures and paintings of more than
twenty-seven thousand deities. These images illustrate
the esoteric and cosmological speculations of the Sa
skya school, which are experienced by adepts during
circumambulation. A central figure is that of the tran-
scendental Vajradhara, located in the fourth story. The
stucco statues and the paintings represent a typical Ti-
betan style called “school of Gyantse,” into which for-
eign influences have been fully integrated.
Beginning in the fifteenth century, temple plans in
Tibet develop according to different systems, culmi-
nating in complex monastic cities like Dga ldan, espe-
cially under the influence of the Dge lugs order. An
increasing Chinese influence is noticeable, mainly in
roof structures. Examples are the Kumbum (Sku ’bum;
Chinese, Ta’ersi) at the birthplace of TSONG KHA PA
(1357–1419) in Amdo, and Labrang Tashi Khyil (Bla
brang bKra shis dkyil), founded in 1710 by the Dge
lugs order.
A special position in Tibetan architecture is occu-
pied by the political and religious center of the POTALA
on the Red Mountain at Lhasa. Since the fifth DALAI
LAMAstarted construction on the White Palace in
1645, the fortresslike palace and temple complex, ris-
ing thirteen stories and covering more than 100,000
square meters, served as a residence for the dalai lamas.
The palace comprises halls, chapels, shrines, chörtens,
and libraries, as well as quarters for administration and
living. Its architectural style is a combination of Ti-
betan and Chinese features, but it has a uniquely Ti-
betan appearance. It has slightly slanting stone walls
and golden roofs for the main buildings, and it is filled
with murals, paintings, and sculptures of historical fig-
ures from the seventh to the seventeenth century andHIMALAYAS, BUDDHISTART IN