more than eighty thousand woodblocks, took sixteen
years to complete (1236–1251); it is still preserved in
the Tripitaka Hall of Haein Monastery near Taegu.
Buddhism during the Choso ̆ ̆n dynasty
Supported by the court and the nobles, the Koryo ̆
san ̇gha enjoyed considerable economic prosperity.
Large monasteries became major landowners after the
donation of land and serfs by the kings and influen-
tial families, and many monasteries developed into fi-
nancial powers by pursuing various commercial
enterprises. The san ̇gha’s economic power became so
immense that it generated much complaint and crit-
icism toward the end of the dynasty. Lesser bureau-
crats were especially strong critics, influenced by
neo-Confucianism, a new ideology introduced from
Song China in the late thirteenth century.
With the collapse of the Koryo ̆regime, Buddhism
came under further attack. The new Choso ̆n dynasty
(1392–1910), which was built upon neo-Confucian
ideology, severed its official relationship with Bud-
dhism. Land holdings were confiscated and hundreds
of monasteries were disbanded. As anti-Buddhist mea-
sures grew more severe, people were prohibited from
ordaining, monks were not allowed to enter the capi-
tal city, the monks’ examination system was abolished,
and the various Buddhist denominations were forced
to consolidate. Only two denominations, So ̆njong and
Kyojong, were left, all others being absorbed into them.
In short, Buddhism was forced out of mainstream so-
ciety, and monks were downgraded to the lowest so-
cial stratum.
It was during this period of PERSECUTIONthat the
denominational identities of the traditional Buddhist
schools disappeared and the ascendancy of So ̆n began.
Less dependent, perhaps, upon institutional and doc-
trinal structures, So ̆n withstood the persecution better
than Kyo and managed to maintain its tradition deep
in the mountain areas.
Buddhism experienced a short revival during the
sixteenth century when HYUJO ̆NG(1520–1604) became
the most important leader of the Choso ̆n san ̇gha, both
So ̆n and Kyo. Although a So ̆n master, Hyujo ̆ng demon-
strated an accommodating attitude toward doctrinal
studies. He argued that Kyo is the word of the Buddha,
whereas So ̆n is his mind. Although he believed in their
essential unity, Hyujo ̆ng taught that a monk’s training
should begin with Kyo, but eventually the trainee must
move on to So ̆n in order to attain perfection. Hyujo ̆ng
thus established the principle of “relinquishing Kyo
and entering into So ̆n” (sagyo ipso ̆n), which is still fol-
lowed among Korean monks today.
Hyujo ̆ng and his followers, especially YUJO ̆NG
(1544–1610) and Yo ̆nggwan (1485–1571), also played
an important role in mobilizing the monks’ militia
against Japanese forces during the Hideyoshi invasion
(1592–1599). Although Buddhist monks were held in
contempt in the strongly anti-Buddhist Confucian so-
ciety, they were ironically the salvation of the state dur-
ing this national crisis. Many monks were subsequently
given high honorific military titles, and their improved
status continued for a while after the war.
On the whole, during the Choso ̆n period, Buddhism
fell from the place of high respect and honor that it
had enjoyed during the Silla and Koryo ̆periods, and
it remained largely confined to the countryside, iso-
lated from mainstream intellectual and cultural life.
Nevertheless, monks of high learning and character
continued to flow into the san ̇gha, providing leader-
ship during a difficult period.Modern period
During the Japanese colonization of Korea (1910–
1945), Korean Buddhism faced new challenges. The
Japanese policy toward Buddhism was inconsistent.
Although the Japanese government lifted the ban on
monks’ entry into metropolitan areas and allowed
most religious activities, the government-general also
tried to control the Korean san ̇gha and to force its
merger with one or another Japanese sect of Buddhism.
The sach’allyo ̆ng(Monastery Act) placed the Korean
san ̇gha under political surveillance by imposing a hi-
erarchical organization on the monasteries and by re-
quiring state approval for the appointment of the
abbots. An important development in Korean Bud-
dhism under colonial rule was the emergence of mar-
ried priests (taech’o ̆su ̆ng), an influence of Japanese
Buddhism, which eventually became a major source of
conflict in the san ̇gha after Korean independence.
Government persecution during the Choso ̆n period
had forced the amalgamation of schools and sects, and
the denominational identities of Korean Buddhism
were essentially obliterated, with the exception of the
distinction between So ̆n and Kyo, although even this
distinction became practically meaningless after the as-
cendance of So ̆n. Efforts were made during the Japan-
ese colonial period to define the character of Korean
Buddhism by giving it a denominational name. In view
of its predominantly So ̆n character, it adopted in 1941
the name Chogyejong, after the old Koryo ̆So ̆n order.KOREA