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GREGORYSCHOPENMAHAYANA PRECEPTS IN JAPANThe term Mahayana preceptsis usually used to differ-
entiate lists of PRECEPTSor rules found in MAHAYANA
texts from those found in the VINAYA, the traditional
source upon which monastic discipline was based. A
large number of Mahayana texts contain such lists,
some detailed and others very simple.
The history of Mahayana precepts in Japan was de-
cisively influenced by the country’s geography. Japan
is an island country; during the Nara period, it was dif-
ficult to reach from the Asian mainland, and therefore
difficult for ORDINATIONSto be performed in the or-
thodox manner, in rituals presided over by ten monks
who had correctly received the precepts. GANJIN
(688–763), for example, tried six times to lead a group
of monks from China to Japan so that they could con-
duct a proper ordination. As a result, at least some
monks resorted to self-ordinations, a Mahayana ritual
in which monks would go before an image of the Bud-
dha and perform confessions and meditate until they
received a sign from the Buddha sanctioning their or-
dination, a sign that could occur either while they were
awake or in a dream. In addition, government control
of ordinations led other monks to use Mahayana pre-
cepts to ordain their followers. The most famous ex-
ample of this is Gyoki (668–749), who used a set of
Mahayana precepts, probably from the Yogacarab-
humi,to ordain groups of men and women who per-
formed social works, such as building bridges and
irrigation systems, activities specified in some sets of
Mahayana rules.
The term Mahayana preceptswas frequently used
in a polemical manner to criticize the rules of the
vinaya. However, most monks who adhered to the
vinaya rules believed that they were following precepts
that were largely or completely consistent with
Mahayana teachings. Ganjin used an ordination plat-
form that included an image of two buddhas sittingMAHAYANAPRECEPTS INJAPAN