ifestation of Vairocana in the phenomenal world, with
thirty-eight disciples; and at the outermost edge, Mañ-
jus ́r, the Bodhisattva of Wisdom, with an entourage
of twenty-three other figures.
Each mandala is based on a different text: the Womb
World on the Mahavairocana-sutra(Great Vairocana
Sutra) and the Diamond World on the Vajras ́ekara(Di-
amond World). The former was translated from San-
skrit into Chinese by the Indian S ́ubhakarasimha
(637–735) in the eighth century, while the latter is
based on a translation by Amoghavajra (705–774) dur-
ing the same period. Together with Vajrabodhi
(669–741), these monks are revered as the founders of
the MIJIAO(ESOTERIC) SCHOOLof Buddhism in China.
Examples of both mandalas are said to have been
brought to Japan from China in the early ninth cen-
tury by the famed monk KUKAI(774–835). As is more
often than not the case with mandalas, not all exam-
ples of these two conform precisely to these texts.
South or Southeast Asian evidence for either
mandala, and particularly for their use as a pair, is
rare. It has been suggested that some figures in cave
6 at Aurangabad, a sixth- or seventh-century site in
western India, can be understood to symbolize the Di-
amond and Womb World mandalas. A variant of the
Diamond World Mandala is thought to underlie the
structure and imagery of the famous ninth-century
BOROBUDURin Java. In addition, two examples of
three-dimensional mandalas, created using small
(three- to five-inch) sculptures, have been found in
Indonesia: a well-known late tenth- to early eleventh-
century group from Nganjuk, and a slightly earlier as-
semblage from Surucolo.
Two divergent mandala traditions are preserved
after the eleventh century. One is associated with
Indo-Tibetan Buddhism, the other with Japanese
practices. The Indo-Tibetan examples reflect the
spread of the Anuttarayoga or Unexcelled Yoga
Tantra tradition from India to Tibet; however, with
the exception of a few stone stelae, Indian prototypes
are no longer extant.
A lotus flower, generally eight-petaled, fills the core
of Indo-Tibetan mandalas. The lotus is housed in a
palacelike inner sanctuary with elaborate arched gate-
ways at the four cardinal directions. The square palace
is surrounded by an outer circle composed of rings of
fire, vajras(ritual implements symbolic of the adaman-
tine properties of the diamond), and lotus petals. The
small figures that inhabit the graveyards or charnel
grounds, often placed between the inner palace and the
outer ring, are standard images in Tibetan mandalas,
and reflect early practices that led to the development
of Anuttarayoga Tantra. The figures at the sides of the
mandala represent either teachers associated with its
practices, or related deities.
Mandalas are made as single works or in sets. A well-
known series, based on the Vajravali(Diamond Gar-
land) and commissioned by Ngor chen kun dga’ bzang
po (1382–1456), includes both single icons and paint-
ings depicting four related mandalas.
A seventeenth-century painting of the KALACAKRA
Mandala in the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston shows
a large central mandala surrounded by four smaller
versions for related deities. The painting is based on
the Kalacakra Tantra(Wheel of Time Tantra), a late
text distinguished by its elaborate cosmology and the
prophecy of an apocalyptic war ending in the triumph
of Shambhala, a hidden Buddhist kingdom, and the
enlightenment of the cosmos. The central palace has
been divided into three structures, one symbolic of
body, one mind, and one speech, the three primary
components of the complicated Kalacakra system.
The twelve animals carrying circles filled with
deities in the space between the middle and outer walls
of the palace represent the days of the year according
to the Kalacakra cycle. The tiny figures at the top of
the painting are the kings of Shambhala, where the
Kalacakra teachings were first taught and are pre-
served. The numerous small figures that provide the
upper background for the five mandalas represent
lamas who have upheld the Kalacakra lineage. Those
toward the bottom are various deities associated with
the Kalacakra. Monks and lay patrons, involved in the
creation of the work and possibly in its ritual use, are
shown seated around an offering table at the lower left.
In addition to continuing early mandala traditions,
such as that of the eight bodhisattvas, Japanese Bud-
dhism created several unique traditions, also known as
mandalas, that illustrate revered sites, such as the Ka-
suga shrine near Nara or Mount Koya to the south of
Osaka. Ascetics and others, some of whom were influ-
enced by early forms of Esoteric Buddhism popular in
Japan from the eighth through the twelfth centuries,
frequently used such sites. Over time, the sharing of
ideas and practices among these varied seekers and
more settled monastic adherents led to the creation of
a system known as HONJI SUIJAKUor “true-nature”
manifestation. According to this system, native Shinto
gods are manifestations of imported Buddhist deities,
and the two become interchangeable. PaintingsMANDALA