The categories of monks and the stages of ordina-
tion outlined above are often traced back to Indian
Buddhist practices. In actuality, many variations exist
regarding ordination and the categories of monastics.
One such variation pertains to whether or not becom-
ing a fully ordained monastic is a permanent or tem-
porary commitment. Another important variation
concerns the upasampadaordination: While in most
Theravada countries there are social pressures for
novices to take the upasampadaordination once they
reach the appropriate age, the majority of monks in
China choose to remain novices, possibly due origi-
nally to a lack of monasteries able to administer the
monastic precepts. Moreover, most East Asian monas-
tics, after becoming fully ordained, take another set of
precepts called BODHISATTVAvows derived from the
FANWANG JING(BRAHMA’SNETSUTRA), which, in ac-
cordance with the MAHAYANAtradition, are based on
a commitment to lead all beings to enlightenment.
Daily monastic routines
Monastic daily routines are often centered around four
types of activities: studying, practicing MEDITATION,
performing RITUALs, and fulfilling assigned monastery
duties. Outside of these activities, Buddhist monastics
have also involved themselves, from time to time, in
politics and in social service activities like the con-
struction of shelters for the homeless, schools, animal
shelters, and hospitals.
Generally, daily monastic routines include activities
such as cleaning the monastery; performing a variety
of monastery duties; honoring the Buddha, his teach-
ings (dharma), the monastic community (san ̇gha), and
one’s own teacher; studying; chanting; and meditating.
In addition to being restricted by the monastic code,
the daily monastic routines are further limited by the
actual Buddhist tradition, monastery, rank of the
monastic, and time of the year. For instance, while cer-
tain meditation-oriented monasteries might dedicate
the majority of the day to the practice of meditation,
the daily routine of other monasteries might focus
more heavily on studying Buddhist texts and per-
forming rituals. In addition to these differences,
monastic routines vary between Buddhist traditions
and countries. Whereas Theravada monks from Thai-
land, Myanmar (Burma), or Laos might go out in the
early morning to collect alms and must refrain from
eating after midday, Mahayana monks from China,
Taiwan, Korea, and Japan rarely seek alms and may
partake in an evening meal (sometimes called a “med-
icine meal”). Daily monastic routines may also change
depending upon the time of year. For example,
whereas monks living in certain So ̆n (Chinese, Chan)
monasteries in Korea might meditate for over fourteen
hours a day during the retreat seasons (summer and
winter), they may devote little time to meditation dur-
ing the nonretreat season. During this time, monks of-
ten visit other monasteries, travel on PILGRIMAGEs, and
engage in various other projects around the monastery,
such as gardening, farming, and construction work.Buddhist monastic routines are also punctuated by
monthly rituals and ceremonies that may vary in form
and content between the different Buddhist traditions.
One such monthly ritual commonly practiced in the
Theravada tradition is the posadha(Pali, uposatha) rit-
ual, which is held semimonthly on new moon and full
moon days. In this ritual, the disciplinary code is re-
cited and the members of the monastic community are
asked whether or not they have broken any of the pre-
cepts. This confessional ritual creates a sense of unity
within the monastic community and encourages self-
scrutiny and monastic purity, which are necessary for
spiritual progress.The posadharitual is slowly gaining in renewed pop-
ularity in certain Mahayana countries such as Taiwan
and Korea. In monasteries where the ritual is not prac-
ticed, other monthly and semimonthly rituals may take
its place. It is common in the Korean So ̆n tradition,
for instance, that every fortnight during the new and
full moons days the abbot gives a lecture and may even
administer the bodhisattva precepts to the monks.
Usually this lecture covers various aspects of the Bud-
dha’s or other famous Buddhist monks’ teachings, as
well as brief instructions on meditation.Yearly rituals and celebrations also play an impor-
tant role in monastic routines. One of the most pop-
ular and important annual Buddhist ceremonies is the
celebration of the Buddha’s birth, enlightenment, and
death. This ceremony usually occurs during the full
moon of the fourth lunar month (usually late April or
early May) of each year. In anticipation of this very im-
portant celebration, monks in the week leading up to
the full moon begin thoroughly cleaning the monastery
and decorating it with handmade paper lanterns. Dur-
ing this ritual, the laity flock to their local monastery,
where they wander in and around the monastic build-
ings, meet with the monks and nuns, partake in cer-
tain rituals, and attend lectures on various aspects of
the Buddha’s life and teachings.MONASTICISM