even enlightened eccentric monks are all, for the most
part, positive images. Equally prominent in all cultures
where Buddhism is practiced, however, is the negative
image of the corrupt, degenerate monk. In Buddhist
writings, perhaps the most famous bad monk was DE-
VADATTA, cousin and disciple to the Buddha, who out
of envy and ambition tried repeatedly to thwart the
Buddha’s goals, at one point even attempting to poi-
son him, an act for which he was, in the end, consigned
to hell. Equally vile was Mahadeva, said to have had
sex with his mother before killing both his parents, af-
ter which he sought ordination in a desperate attempt
to redeem himself. As a monk, his most significant act
was to propose five controversial theses that led to dis-
sension within the san ̇gha. Legends such as these prob-
ably grew out of attempts to vilify proponents of rival
schools or factions. Descriptions of malicious, insin-
cere monks are common in Buddhist writings, where
they are condemned and employed as a pedagogical
device to inspire more noble monks to avoid their ex-
ample. Because of this rhetorical aspect in such stories,
one must be cautious before accepting accounts of im-
moral monks as accurate descriptions of real behavior,
even when such accounts come from Buddhist sources.
Outside of Buddhist sources, the corrupt monk is
also a stock figure in non-Buddhist literature, where
monks are often portrayed as only pretending to ac-
cept Buddhist principles of renunciation and detach-
ment in order to better achieve the most base and
worldly aims. The characteristics of such monks de-
pend in part on the mores of their country of origin.
In China, for instance, where vegetarianism is an im-
portant part of the monk’s identity, monks are often
portrayed as secretly satisfying their cravings for meat
and wine. And sexually depraved, insatiable monks ap-
pear in the literature of all cultures where Buddhism
is practiced. Again, it is often difficult to assess the ac-
curacy of such characterizations. While from ancient
times to the present there have no doubt always been
monks of questionable ethics ready to violate their
vows for selfish intent, many such accounts are prod-
ucts of lay fantasy rather than accurate descriptions of
actual monks.
Grouping the entire monastic community into a few
ideal types masks its diversity. In addition to joining
the san ̇gha for ascetic training, to investigate Buddhist
doctrine, to promote Buddhist institutions, or for less
lofty motives, some join because of social obligation,
whether out of the custom of becoming a monk for a
short period as in Thailand and Burma, or to fulfill a
vow made by one’s parents. Men become monks after
failing in the secular world or after becoming disillu-
sioned with secular success. They may seek tonsure out
of a yearning for tranquility, contempt for the materi-
alism and pettiness of ordinary society, or out of a
sense of boredom. In short, the list of reasons for be-
coming a Buddhist monk is long and varied. It is in
part because of this diversity of character and motive
that the monastic vocation has held such an enduring
appeal for so many and that monks have played such
an influential role in all of the societies in which Bud-
dhism is or was once prevalent.See also:Disciples of the Buddha; Nuns; Wilderness
MonksBibliography
Bechert, Heinz, and Gombrich, Richard, ed. The World of Bud-
dhism: Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture.Lon-
don: Thames and Hudson, 1984.
Buswell, Robert E., Jr. The Zen Monastic Experience: Buddhist
Practice in Contemporary Korea.Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1992.
Kieschnick, John. The Eminent Monk: Buddhist Ideals in Me-
dieval Chinese Hagiography.Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press, 1997.
Lopez, Donald S., Jr., ed. Buddhism in Practice.Princeton, NJ:
Princeton University Press, 1995.
Ray, Reginald A. Buddhist Saints in India: A Study in Buddhist
Values and Orientations.Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1994.
Welch, Holmes. The Practice of Chinese Buddhism, 1900–1950.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1967.JOHNKIESCHNICKMOZHAO CHAN (SILENT
ILLUMINATION CHAN)Used as a derogatory term by its critics, “silent illumi-
nation” Chan (Chinese, mozhao Chan; Japanese,
mukoshoZen) designates an approach to practice and
enlightenment that strongly emphasizes the inherently
enlightened buddha-nature (TATHAGATAGARBHA) in all
SENTIENT BEINGS. Silent illumination Chan advocates
an objectless, still MEDITATION, in which all dualisms
disappear and enlightenment naturally manifests itself.
The term silent illuminationwas first used in Chi-
nese Chan (Korean, So ̆n; Japanese, Zen) circles in the
first half of the twelfth century, probably introducedMOZHAOCHAN(SILENTILLUMINATIONCHAN)