(Sanskrit and Newari) format. While the elite ritualists,
adepts, and scholars used Sanskrit texts to guide their
ritual practices, tantric meditations, and philosophical
studies, they also redacted relevant Indic works into
their own language and composed treatises in their own
lingua franca. The Newar literati devised over ten cal-
ligraphic scripts, especially for manuscripts used for rit-
ual “book puja” purposes: Newa Lipisince the ninth
century, and Rañjanasince the fourteenth century.
Vernacular Buddhist literature in Nepal Bhasamir-
rors the distinctive cultural traditions of Newar Bud-
dhism, which was centered on a san ̇gha of “householder
monks” and their focus on intricate ritual and popu-
lar narratives more than scholasticism, with VAJRAYANA
practices important for the elite. Accordingly, no
vinaya or early canonical works are extant in the bilin-
gual collections and only fragments of any Buddhist
scholastic treatises (s ́astra) have been identified. More
common are MAHAYANA “classics” such as the
Prajñaparamita-sutra(Perfection of Wisdom Sutra),
BODHICARYAVATARA(Introduction to the Conduct That
Leads to Enlightenment), and the LOTUSSUTRA(SAD-
DHARMAPUNDARIKA-SUTRA).
Especially numerous are texts devoted to the celes-
tial BODHISATTVAAvalokites ́vara, such as the Karan-
davyuha(Description of the Basket). The most locally
influential text in this genre is the Gunakarandavyuha
(Description of the Garlanded Basket), a Sanskrit work
originally composed in Nepal that has been widely
translated into Newari.
Several other important works were composed by
local scholars in Sanskrit and translated into numerous
Newari editions. First is the Bhadrakalpa Avadana(Glo-
rious Stories of This Auspicious Era), a text that recounts
the Buddha’s return to his hometown Kapilavastu.
More important in the indigenous worldview is the
SvayambhuPurana(The Sacred Account of Svayembhu,
the Self-Existent). It has a curious title for a Buddhist
text, indicating the strong influence of Hindu traditions
in Nepal. But this text recounts the Buddhist origins of
the valley as a hierophany of the Adi-Buddha as a flam-
ing lotus in a lake, one subsequently visited by buddhas
of former ages of the world. In the current era, this lake
is finally drained by the Bodhisattva Mañjus ́rto form
the Kathmandu Valley and opened to settlement by his
disciples, making the Svayambhu Puranaa work si-
multaneously of Mahayana Buddhology and ethnic
origins. This text was later expanded to include the his-
tory of tantric teachers entering the domain and to
discuss the history of related sacred sites. Most im-
portant among these is the sacred hilltop now called
SvayambhuMahacaitya.
The most common manuscript genres in Newar
Buddhist literature are popular narratives (JATAKAs and
AVADANAs) and ritual texts. “Folklorists” in the Newar
san ̇gha collected, redacted, and “trans-created” (to use
Kamal Prakash Malla’s term) the classical tales from the
JATAKAMALA(Garland of Jatakas), AVADANAS ́ATAKA(A
Hundred Glorious Deeds), and MAHAVASTU (Great
Story). Some stand alone due to their popularity. These
include the Simhalasarthabahu Avadana,the Manicuda
Avadana, the Vlraku ́a Avadas na, the Kavirakumar
Avadana,and the Vis ́vantara Jataka; such texts have
been used up to the present day by pandit-storytellers
who attract audiences for evening performances dur-
ing the Newar Buddhist monsoon holy month, Gunla.
Interestingly, several of these Newar avadanaantholo-
gies, such as the Vicitrakarnika Avadana, have no
known classical source.
Given the embedding of story recitations into many
ritual texts, it is difficult to separate the genres. Newar
panditashave typically labeled their ritual guides as
vidhi(directive) or kriya(performance), and these span
a vast repertoire from life-cycle rites and building con-
struction rites to festival practices, temple observances,
and tantric initiations. Special Mahayana rites called
vratashave their own textual guides, including those
dedicated to the beneficent Tara, the fierce protector
Mahakala, the Buddhist earth mother Vasundhara,
and many others. By far the most common text in this
category is that outlining the AstamlVrataand dedi-
cated to Avalokites ́vara. Of special prominence in this
Newar literature are guidebooks for making 100,000
clay stupas, the Laksacaitya Vidhi,and for the old-age
ritual (bhlmaratha kriya) for elders reaching seventy-
seven years and seven months, which includes making
a STUPAand reciting the Usnlsavijayadharanl.Also im-
portant are after-death guidebooks for utilizing the
Durgatiparis ́odhana Tantra’ssalvific mantra and a sand
MANDALAmade by a vajracaryaritualist.
Even more numerous, and variable, are the mantra-
dharanlcollections. The most widespread single text is
the Pañcaraksa(Five Protectors), which provides recita-
tions and visualizations of five protectors, each with sto-
ries testifying to their pragmatic efficacies. Other works,
many reflecting the compiler’s own fields of ritual ex-
pertise, are simply lists of recitations for specific pur-
poses. These span all spheres of human experience:
worshiping, memorizing, singing, healing, attracting
love, rainmaking, injuring. Related to this are collectionsNEWARI, BUDDHISTLITERATURE IN