Cambodia they are known as donchee, in Laos as
maikao,and in Thailand as maechee.Nuns in Myan-
mar wear pink robes with an orange underskirt and
brown shawl over the left shoulder, and are known as
tila shin(possessors of morality). Nuns in Sri Lanka
wear orange or brown robes, and are known as dasasl-
lamata(ten-precept mothers). In these traditions, em-
phasis is placed on monastic discipline, meditation
practice, and dissemination of the Buddha’s teachings.
Recently, the standards of Buddhist education
among Theravada nuns have improved considerably
and the contributions that nuns have made and con-
tinue to make to society are being more widely recog-
nized. Interest in achieving equal opportunities for full
ordination for women has increased, both among nuns
and laypeople. In Sri Lanka, an estimated four hun-
dred nuns have become bhiksunlssince 1988, first by
attending ordinations held in Los Angeles, Sarnath,
and BODHGAYA, and more recently in ordinations
held in Sri Lanka itself. Many nuns in Theravada coun-
tries hesitate to press for bhiksunlordination for two
primary reasons. First, bhiksunlsare prohibited from
handling money and are expected to maintain them-
selves by a daily alms round. Thus, their survival liter-
ally depends on receiving sufficient support from the
lay community. Judging by the history of nuns in In-
dia and Sri Lanka, where the BhiksunSan ̇gha may
have died out due, in part, to famine, sufficient sup-
port for nuns is never certain. Second, according to the
stipulations of the eight gurudharmas, bhiksunlsare
subordinate to the bhiksus in a number of ways. Some
nuns have very legitimate fears that the independence
nuns presently enjoy may be compromised if the
bhiksunlsare beholden to, or come under the domi-
nation of, the Bhiksu San ̇gha.
In Japan, nuns receive the BODHISATTVAprecepts
of the FANWANG JING(BRAHMA’SNETSUTRA), which
are similar to the ten precepts of a s ́ramanerika,and
they follow a celibate monastic lifestyle. In 590 C.E.,
three nuns named Zenshin-in, Zenzo-ni, and
Kenzen-ni traveled from Japan to the Paekche king-
dom of Korea, where they received the ́rasmanerika,
s ́iksamana, and bhiksunl ordinations successively.
These nuns returned to Japan, but were unable to con-
duct a bhiksunlordination there because they did not
constitute the required minimum of five bhiksunl
precept masters. When the Tiantai monk GANJIN
(Jianzhen) came to Japan in 754 C.E., three bhiksunls
accompanied him, but they were also too few in num-
ber to conduct a bhiksunl ordination. Thus, the
BhiksunSan ̇gha was never established in Japan. Nev-
ertheless, numerous nunneries and several thousand
nuns exist throughout Japan today, primarily in the
Jodo, Tendai, Shingon, Nichiren, Soto, and Rinzai
Zen schools. Together with several million devoted
laywomen, they play essential roles in preserving and
disseminating Japanese Buddhist culture.
In Tibet and, more recently, in Mongolia, nuns take
thirty-six precepts, which are a detailed enumeration
of the ten precepts of a s ́ramanerika.Although there is
mention of bhiksunls in Tibetan historical records,
there is no evidence that a BhiksunlSan ̇gha was ever
established in Tibet. In the Tibetan tradition, which is
followed by nuns throughout the Tibetan cultural re-
gion, nuns wear robes identical to those of the monks.
These nuns are recognized as members of the san ̇gha
but, as novices, they do not generally receive the same
education, esteem, or material support as do monks.
Nuns and devoted laywomen nevertheless receive the
bodhisattva precepts, receive teachings on both the
sutras and tantras, and engage in a variety of practices,
including prostrations, meditation, MANDALAoffer-
ings, and MANTRArecitation.
Conditions for study and practice seem to be most
conducive for nuns in those traditions that have living
bhiksunllineages. In Korea, the training for a prospec-
tive bhiksunllasts up to six years, and places a high
value on sutra studies, vinaya studies, and meditation.
The monastic year is divided into four seasons. Sum-
mer and winter are spent in intensive meditation and
retreat; spring and autumn are spent cultivating, har-
vesting, and preparing the food needed during the
meditation seasons, as well as performing other tasks
required to maintain the monastery. Educational stan-
dards among Korean nuns have improved dramatically
in recent decades and nuns are increasingly taking
leading roles in Buddhist education, youth activities,
and other social welfare programs.
Nuns are also prominent in the resurgence of Bud-
dhism that is currently taking place in Taiwan. Full
ordination and a wide range of educational opportu-
nities are available to Taiwanese nuns, including Bud-
dhist studies programs in several hundred colleges,
institutes, and universities. Nuns in Taiwan are active
in social service activities, health care, and the arts. In
addition to founding and directing numerous temples
and institutions for Buddhist education and training,
nuns have founded and maintain libraries, museums,
orphanages, medical centers, care homes, and
women’s shelters. Although nuns substantially out-
number monks in Taiwan, monks generally hold theNUNS