Instead, they are depicted in terms of the theory of de-
pendent origination. The noble truth concerned with
the arising of suffering is simply explained by the
pratltyasamutpadain normal order (anuloma), while
the noble truth of cessation of suffering is defined by
dependent origination in reverse order (pratiloma). It
is clear then that dependent origination, traditionally
seen as an explanation for the arising and the eradica-
tion of suffering, is intimately related to the theory of
the five aggregates.
The Theravada tradition holds that certain links of
the chain of causation are limited either to the past,
present, or future. In other words, and as illustrated in
Table 1, different links constitute different temporal
divisions. Although this chronological division is not
expressed explicitly in the Pali canonical literature it-
self, it is supported by the Abhidhammatthasan ̇gaha
(Compendium of Philosophy) of Anuruddha, a South
Indian Buddhist philosopher (ca. eleventh–twelfth
century C.E.). What is unclear, however, is the delin-
eation and theoretical distinction among these three
divisions. Since the past is nothing but the aging of the
present, and the present the actualization of the future,
each temporal division has to be seen as the para-
phrasing of, or a different perspective on, the two other
divisions. Since these divisions are merely arbitrary, the
links of dependent origination that were classified un-
der a certain time period could have been easily clas-
sified under another. What comes under “past” could
have been under “future” or “present,” and vice versa.
Therefore, it becomes evident that elements belonging
to a specific time period represent a process similar to
the one reflected by the elements belonging to another.
Ignorance and karmic activities operate on the same
principles as birth and old age and death, and as the
eight middle links. The physical and psychological el-
ements at work in the individual remain the same
whether in the past, present, or future. Stated differ-
ently, the theory of dependent origination could run
thus: Within one life span (links 11–12; birth and old
age and death), one keeps generating karmic activities
(link 2) because of ignorance (link 1), and this gener-
ation of karmic activities due to ignorance is more eas-
ily understandable by examining the process described
by the eight middle links.
Equally striking is that the division of the chain of
causation into three time periods implies the presence
of the five aggregates in each of these periods, since an
“individual” (composed of the five aggregates) must
experience this process within each of the periods; this
is the perspective put forth by VASUBANDHU(fourth
century C.E.) in his ABHIDHARMAKÓSABHASYA(AbhK.
iii, 20). This suggests that the theory of dependent
origination is not merely a soteriological tool, indi-
cating how the individual ought to proceed in order
to attain liberation from the causal process of samsara,
but also a psychological chart mapping the working
of the mind.See also:Duhkha (Suffering)Bibliography
Dalai Lama XIV. Freedom in Exile: The Autobiography of the
Dalai Lama.New York: HarperCollins, 1990.
Lamotte, Étienne. “Conditioned Co-Production and Supreme
Enlightenment.” In Buddhist Studies in Honour of Walpola
Rahula,ed. Somaratna Balasooriya et al. London: Gordon
Fraser, 1980.
Macy, Joanna. “Dependent Co-Arising: The Distinctiveness of
Buddhist Ethics.” Journal of Religious Ethics7, no. 1 (1979):
38–52.
Silburn, Lilian. Instant et cause: Le discontinu dans la pensée
philosophique de l’Inde.Paris: Librairie Philosophique J.
Vrin, 1955.
Tanaka, Kenneth K. “Simultaneous Relation (sahabhu-hetu): A
Study in Buddhist Theory of Causation.” Journal of the In-
ternational Association of Buddhist Studies8, no. 1 (1985):
91–111.MATHIEUBOISVERTPRATYEKABUDDHAIn the early tradition of the Pali canon the paccek-
abuddha(Sanskrit, pratyekabuddha) refers to a male
individual who has attained enlightenment or insight
(bodhi; hence, buddha) by himself. In contrast to a sam-
masambuddha(Sanskrit, samyaksambuddha), which is
a completely enlightened person, a pratyekabuddha
keeps enlightenment for himself (pratyeka) and does
not embark on a career of preaching it to others. In
early Buddhist COSMOLOGY, buddha era and non-
buddha era follow each other. During a buddha era,
an enlightened being like the historical Buddha (Sid-
dhartha Gautama) is born, attains enlightenment, and
eventually preaches the FOUR NOBLE TRUTHSthat he
has discovered. He then starts a dispensation on the
basis of his compassion for other suffering beings. A
pratyekabuddha also attains enlightenment by his
own effort, but does not have the energy to preach or
establish a Buddhist dispensation because, as thePRATYEKABUDDHA