and explanation, which are in turn validated (the prob-
ability of their disconfirmation reduced) when they
themselves set the direction for further research and
observation. There are, of course, good reasons to
doubt their total independence from culture and the
sociology of knowledge, but one risks misunderstand-
ing their scope if one chooses to ignore the research
protocols that underlie scientific statements about hu-
man psychosomatic processes.
Similarly, religious discourse and practice has its
own protocols, and these must be thoroughly under-
stood before one draws comparisons. Even today,
practicing Buddhists tend to reject an interpretation of
their beliefs and practices that may feel “reductionis-
tic.” As already noted, a psychoneurological explana-
tion may ring true, but for it ultimately to have
heuristic value or applicability beyond its conceptual
conclusions it must account for the belief systems (the
truths and myths of tradition) and the actual practices
(ritual and contemplative patterns and events) cher-
ished by the believers themselves.
Nonetheless, one may begin to consider, specula-
tively at this point in our understanding of the issue,
ways in which Buddhist traditions may be seen to con-
tain insights or techniques that may help illuminate
contemporary problems of psychology. As suggested
above, such illumination could be in a number of ar-
eas of philosophical and psychological inquiry: theo-
ries of consciousness and the unconscious, such as the
theories of perception, emotion, and mental health.
Some of these issues have been discussed in an ongo-
ing series of symposia involving Western scholars, sci-
entists, and the fourteenth DALAILAMA.
The discussions point toward interesting possibili-
ties for the future, and the participation of the Dalai
Lama also reminds us of the frame of reference within
which Buddhist psychological theories have developed
—and arguably will continue to develop. Buddhist the-
ories of mind speak of health and “dis-ease,” but they
also have ethical concerns that do not always overlap
with the concerns of Western psychologists. The Bud-
dhist may, for instance, be concerned with total liber-
ation from the bonds of desire that have enslaved us
for millions of rebirths, whereas the Western psychol-
ogist may be seeking an adaptive compromise in this
single life. The Buddhist meditator may value unques-
tioned acceptance of a teacher’s wisdom, whereas the
Western psychologist may be interested in the matter
of power differentials and authority in the relationship
between therapist and client.
Most likely the majority of scientific psychologists,
whatever their theoretical leanings, would not want to
describe Buddhist doctrine and practices as equivalent
to any one of the Western psychologies. Conversely it
is difficult to imagine how a person committed to Bud-
dhism in belief, practice, or both would want to reduce
his or her preferred set of beliefs and practices to any-
thing similar to what is considered scientific or em-
pirical. And yet, if history is an effective teacher, we
may expect to find an increasing cross-fertilization be-
tween both styles of studying and healing the human
being as a unity of body and mind.See also:Anatman/Atman (No-Self/Self); Chan School;
Consciousness, Theories of; Sentient BeingsBibliography
Austin, James H. Zen and the Brain: Toward an Understanding
of Meditation and Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press, 1988.
Benson, Herbert, and Klipper, Miriam Z. The Relaxation Re-
sponse.New York: Avon, 1976.
Birx, Ellen. Healing Zen.New York: Viking, 2002.
Block, Ned; Flanagan, Owen; and Guzeldere, Guven. The Na-
ture of Consciousness: Philosophical Debates.Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press, 1998.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV).
MindScience: An East-West Dialogue,ed. Daniel Goleman
and Robert A. F. Thurman. Boston: Wisdom, 1991.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV). Gen-
tle Bridges: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on the Sciences
of Mind,ed. Jeremy W. Hayward and Francisco J. Varela.
Boston: Shambhala, 1992.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV), with
Daniel Goleman et al. Worlds in Harmony: Dialogues on
Compassionate Action.Berkeley, CA: Parallax, 1992.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV). Heal-
ing Anger: The Power of Patience from a Buddhist Perspective,
tr. Geshe Thupten Jinpa and Sonam Thupten Jinpa. Ithaca,
NY: Snow Lion, 1997.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV).
Transforming the Mind: Teachings on Generating Compas-
sion,tr. Geshe Thupten Jinpa. London: Thorsons, 2000.
Bstan Dzin Rgya Mtsho (Tenzin Gyatso, Dalai Lama XIV). Heal-
ing Emotions: Conversations with the Dalai Lama on Mind-
fulness, Emotions, and Health,ed. Daniel Goleman. Boston:
Shambhala, 2003.
Chalmers, David J. The Conscious Mind: In Search of a Funda-
mental Theory.Oxford and New York: Oxford University
Press, 1996.PSYCHOLOGY