Rebirth and cosmic causality
In basic Buddhist doctrinal terms, an answer to the dif-
ficult question of rebirth in light of the cardinal teach-
ing of “no-self” is to be located in how Buddhism
understands causality, the way one thing leads to an-
other. One Buddhist formula describes it as follows:
“When this exists, that exists; from this arising, that
arises. When this does not exist, that does not exist;
from this ceasing, that ceases.” Technically speaking,
this principle of causality is explicated by the formal
doctrine of PRATITYASAMUTPADA(DEPENDENT ORIGI-
NATION), which holds that all phenomena, including
the “self” and the surrounding world, arise out of a net-
work of relationships dependent upon other causes and
conditions. The self, therefore, is not to be understood
as an essential, independent entity moving from one
life to the next, but rather as a manifestation of a com-
plex of causes and conditions, both mental and physi-
cal, themselves interdependent and continually in flux.
The doctrine of dependent origination is graphically
depicted as a circular chain consisting of twelve condi-
tioned and conditioning links (nidana): (1) ignorance,
the inability to perceive the truth of ANITYA(IMPERMA-
NENCE) and dependent origination, conditions (2)
karmic formations, from which comes (3) conscious-
ness, which leads to (4) mind-and-body (name and
form) and then (5) the six senses (sources); the gateway
of the six senses leads to (6) sensory contact that creates
(7) sense impressions or feelings; these lead to (8) at-
tachment; attachment leads to (9) grasping, which in
turn gives rise to (10) becoming; becoming culminates
in (11) birth, from which follow (12) aging and death,
and the cycle begins again. In sequence, these twelve
links generate life cycles within the perpetual process of
samsara driven by karma. In this way, the twelvefold
chain of dependent origination describes the process of
rebirth. Birth and death, then, are to be understood as
nothing more or less than oscillating links in the ongo-
ing chain of cause and effect. Rebirth is a configuration
of a new cluster of causes and conditions propelled by
previous karmic impulses. The process is compared to
lighting one candle with the flame of another; the for-
mer flame is not the same as the latter and yet there is
still a transfer of the flame. Like lighting a new candle,
rebirth is simply the movement of a continuum of ever-
changing mental and physical complexes from one
physical support to another. It is this particular notion
of causality that lies at the heart of the Buddhist under-
standing of rebirth.
The engine of rebirth is karma, the good and bad
actions of body, speech, and mind that have been per-
formed not only in the immediately preceding life but
also many lifetimes ago. The cumulative moral qual-
ity of a person’s karma determines the quality of each
successive life. There is widespread consensus among
Buddhists everywhere, however, that the state of a per-
son’s mind at the moment of death can actually be the
most significant factor in setting the course for the fu-
ture rebirth. It is usually the case that the mind at death
tends to be occupied by whatever habitual thoughts
and actions were most familiar in life or by whatever
actions are performed just prior to death. For this rea-
son, Buddhism recommends the cultivation of proper
mindfulness and the performance of virtuous activi-
ties at the time of dying, which are all designed to in-
sure a favorable rebirth. To be sure, the concern of the
vast majority of ordinary Buddhists is less about the
achievement of liberation from the cycle of samsara
and more about the attainment of a better position
within that cycle. A good rebirth, according to Bud-
dhism, is birth in one of the three higher realms of
samsara, that of gods (deva), demigods (asura), and
human beings (manusya), with human birth deemed
the most precious. Rebirth in the other three realms,
of animals (tiryak), ghosts (preta), and hell beings
(naraka), is regarded as terribly unfortunate. In all
Buddhist cultures, certain merit-enhancing actions are
performed at death to assure favorable circumstances
in the next life. In the most general terms, these ac-
tions include the dedication of merit, almsgiving, and
the recitation of Buddhist scriptures.Methods for ensuring a wholesome rebirth
In China and Japan, much emphasis is placed on re-
birth in a buddha’s pure land, such as AMITABHA’s
pure land of Sukhavat, the Land of Bliss. Although
there are multiple explanations for how best to en-
sure rebirth in one of these pure lands, in general it
requires faith and a sincere aspiration to be reborn
there. The repeated chanting of the name of the par-
ticular buddha of that realm or the recitation of his
scripture at the moment of dying is also recom-
mended. In addition, Chinese Buddhists at the time
of death sometimes offer ritual paper money, popu-
larly called “spirit money,” to the postmortem bu-
reaucrats and executive officers who are believed to
abide in the afterlife. It is thought that this monetary
offering will lessen the deceased’s karmic debts and
secure passport to a more favorable rebirth. The
burning of such “hell notes” as an offering for the
benefit of the dead is also practiced among Buddhists
in Burma (Myanmar) and Vietnam.REBIRTH