A second “translation” was supposedly carried out
a few centuries after the appearance of the original
version by the monk Amoghavajra (Pukong, 705–774),
one of the most important figures in the Chinese
MIJIAO(ESOTERIC) SCHOOL. But this new version was
actually just a rewrite, since there was no original San-
skrit version. This second version of the text (T 246),
while based mostly on the original version (T 245),
contains new sections that include teachings on
MANDALA, MANTRA, and DHARANI. In the same way that
other apocryphal works, such as the FANWANG JING
(BRAHMA’SNETSUTRA), came to hold a special au-
thoritative position in the subsequent development of
Buddhism in Korea and Japan, as well as China, the
Renwang jingbecame the standard model text in these
East Asian countries for Buddhist-based state protec-
tion and statecraft.
See also:Apocrypha; Kingship; Politics and Bud-
dhism; PrajñaparamitaLiterature
Bibliography
Orzech, Charles. Politics and Transcendent Wisdom: The Scrip-
ture for Humane Kings in the Creation of Chinese Buddhism.
University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1998.
A. CHARLESMULLERREPENTANCE AND CONFESSION
Repentance and confession have been a part of the
practice of Buddhism from its beginning, and several
distinctive forms have evolved for different contexts.
Indian Buddhism developed at least three forms: (1)
communal repentance and confession within the
monastic SAN ̇GHA; (2) metaphysical repentance of
one’s karmic past to a supramundane buddha; and (3)
meditational repentance of incorrect attachments and
understanding. Chinese Buddhists developed public
and elaborate forms of repentance and confession;
these have cosmic dimensions to relieve the suffering
of both the living and the dead.
Indian Buddhism
When disciples of the Buddha first left their family lives
for full-time practice, they adopted a set of guidelines
that were recited in a twice-monthly ceremony called
posadha(Pali, uposatha). During this gathering, monks
recited the rules of discipline (PRATIMOKSA) as a check
and support for their individual practice. Participation
in the group recitation required purity, so prior confes-
sion and restitution were required by monks and nuns
if they had violated any rules. Although expulsion re-
sulted from violation of the more serious parajikarules
(no killing, stealing, sexual intercourse, or lying about
one’s spiritual achievements), lesser rule violations
could be remedied by confession and other support-
ive behavior.
When san
ghadisesa(Sanskrit, san ̇ghavas ́esa) rules
were broken, for example, recovery required confes-
sion to a community of at least twenty monastics, plus
a probationary two-week seclusion for reflection and
reform. San
ghadisesarules set prohibitions against dis-
ruptive behaviors, such as failing to accept admoni-
tions, speaking in envy, gossiping about another, or
repudiating the Buddha, dharma, and san ̇gha. Viola-
tion of the nissaggiya pacittiyas(Sanskrit, naihsargika-
prayas ́cittika) rules also required confession, but only
to a minimum of five monastics, plus forfeiture of an
article that had been wrongly obtained, such as a robe,
bowl, or rug. Confession was required to only one or
more monastics for breaking rules against telling laity
about the misbehavior of monks, bad manners, care-
lessness, not keeping an accepted invitation, or abus-
ing others by scolding, tickling, or degrading them.
Similarly, violations of a fifth category of rules dealing
with food required only confession. Lesser rules deal-
ing with ETIQUETTEdid not require confession at all.
Confession did not excuse the violator from the
penalties of rule breaking; rather, confession was a
matter of truth-telling and of inviting appropriate
penalties for rectifying the situation. A monk or nun
could confess only to other monastics, and confession
was not a public event open to the laity. By contrast,
the rite of pavarana,which occurred after the annual
rainy-season retreat, publicly examined the wrongs
that monks and nuns had committed during the three-
month retreat. The confession and public repentance
involved in pavaranadiffered from the private whis-
pered confession of the pratimoksa.Thus, repentance
and confession within the Buddhist monastic com-
munity served not only to support individual practice,
but also to maintain the unity of the monastic com-
munity and its good reputation with the laity.
A second form of repentance and confession arose
as a way to cope with bad KARMA(ACTION) and had a
very different goal from maintaining monastic purity.
These confessions referred to unexpiated guilt result-
ing from unknown or unremembered past wrongs,
and were a plea for forgiveness to alleviate sufferingREPENTANCE ANDCONFESSION