In the S ́atavahana period (ca. 150 C.E.), towering
gateways consisting of two pillars bearing three archi-
traves were erected at each railing opening. Every sur-
face was carved with tumultuous and naturalistic
reliefs that constantly threaten to break free from their
architecturally defined, linear frames and the rock ma-
trix. In comparison with Bharhut (first century B.C.E.),
Sañc has proportionately more narrative scenes of
As ́oka and of animals worshiping the Buddha’s living
presence in relics such as the bodhi tree and the stupas,
as well as more scenes from the Buddha’s life and far
fewer JATAKAS. Sañc’s narratives typically include
scenes of worshiping crowds moving freely in space.
Style and meaning cohere in expressing the unself-
conscious and unrestrained joyousness that often char-
acterizes devotional worship (bhakti). Loaded up with
auspicious actions, motifs, and figures, Sañc’s gates
simultaneously honor the sacred precinct and protect
its liminal openings against negative powers seeking to
enter. What better way to do so than by representing
and invoking the power of worship?
The Great Stupa’s six hundred short inscriptions in
Prakrit attest to a pattern of collective, multiple dona-
tion typifying early Buddhist patronage. Accounting
for a third of all donations, monks and nuns form the
largest donor group. Next come merchants crisscross-
ing the subcontinent. Donors include a guild of ivory-
carvers and the S ́atavahana king’s chief artisan.
See also:Cave Sanctuaries; India, Buddhist Art in;
Monastic Architecture; Relics and Relics Cult
Bibliography
Cunningham, Alexander. The Bhilsa Topes; or, Buddhist Monu-
ments of Central India(1854). Reprint, Varanasi, India: In-
dological Book House, 1966.
Dehejia, Vidya, ed. Unseen Presence: The Buddha and Sanchi:
Bombay: Marg, 1966.
Maisey, Fredrick Charles. Sanchi and Its Remains: A Full De-
scription of the Ancient Buildings, Sculptures, and Inscriptions
(1892). Reprint, Delhi: Indological Book House, 1972.
Marshall, John Hubert. The Monuments of Sañchl.London:
Probsthain, 1940.
Marshall, John Hubert. A Guide to Sanchi,3rd edition. Delhi:
Manager of Publications, 1955.
LEELAADITIWOODSAN ̇GHAThe san ̇gha (community) is the third of the three Bud-
dhist REFUGES, or JEWELS (triratna), of BUDDHA,
DHARMA, and san ̇gha. The word san ̇ghaliterally means
“that which is well struck together”; it derives from a
Sanskrit root, han(to strike), with the prefix samcon-
veying a sense of togetherness and completeness. The
idea is that the true Buddhist community is well ham-
mered together, impervious to schism, and in perfect
harmony. From the very earliest period the undisputed
focus of Buddhist WORSHIPhas been the san ̇gha, to-
gether with the Buddha and dharma, and the statement
buddham s ́aranam gacchami, dharmam s ́aranam gac-
chami, san ̇ghams ́aranamgacchami(I go for refuge to
the Buddha, I go for refuge to the dharma, I go for
refuge to the san ̇gha) has been the primary, shared af-
firmation of Buddhists.Idealized community
The traditional explanation of san ̇gha describes it not
as a community of ordinary monks and nuns belong-
ing to a Buddhist order, but as a special community of
eight noble beings called aryas(Pali, ariyas) who carry
in their hearts the liberating dharma. They are de-
scribed in the Ratana-suttaof the Cullavaggaof the
Sutta Nipata(II.1.6–7), one of the very earliest Bud-
dhist teachings: “The eight persons praised by the vir-
tuous are four pairs. They are the disciples of the
Buddha and are worthy of offerings. Gifts given to
them yield rich results... free from afflictions they
have obtained... the state beyond death. This is the
precious san ̇gha jewel.”
The first pair of noble beings are those who have
reached, or are on their way to, the state of the ARHAT
(one worthy of praise and offerings). The arhats, like
the Buddha, have found liberation from unending
SAMSARA(the cycle of birth and death). The three other
pairs of noble beings are those who, if not arhats, have
reached, or are on their way to, the state of anagamin;
that is, they are nonreturners to this ordinary world,
which is dominated by sense gratification. If they are
not yet at that stage of development, they have reached,
or are on their way to, the state of sakrdagamin(once-
returners), and they will return once more to this or-
dinary world. The fourth pair of noble beings are
srota-apannas,stream-enterers, who have obtained, or
are on their way to obtaining, a state where they may
return to this ordinary world up to seven more times
before they reach the goal of liberation at the end ofSAN ̇GHA