Sengzhao made multiple contributions to the world
of early medieval Chinese Buddhism. One is his ten-
fascicle commentary to the Weimojie suo shuo jing
(Sutra of Vimalaklrti’s Discourses; Sanskrit, Vimalaklr-
tinirdes ́a-sutra), which elevates lay Buddhism above the
monastic path of the clergy. Sengzhao is known to have
been converted to Buddhism by this sutra. His com-
mentary, written to Kumarajva’s translation of this text,
reportedly inspired hundreds of Chang’an literati to
practice Buddhism. Another contribution is a collection
of philosophical treatises in which the Madhyamaka
philosophy of NAGARJUNA(ca. second century C.E.) was
expounded through the use of devices and language pro-
vided by traditional Chinese thinkers, particularly those
of the Xuanxue (Dark Learning) school. Several such
treatises were collected by later editors of the Tripitaka
under the name of ZHAO LUN(The Treatises of [Seng]
zhao). Other works attributed to Sengzhao, such as
Zongben yilun(Treatise on the Foundational [Principles
of the Doctrine]) and the apocryphal Baozanglun(Trea-
sure Store Treatise), circulated as independent treatises.
The greatest philosophical importance of Sengzhao’s
writings is the introduction to China of the Madhyamaka
ideas of Nagarjuna as they were shaped by Kumarajva’s
understanding of these issues. Sengzhao’s own Daoist
mystical inclinations contributed to the great emphasis
placed on the idea of the TATHAGATAGARBHA(buddha-
nature) in Kumarajva’s translated texts, thus paving
the way for the next phase in the development of Chi-
nese Buddhist thought.
See also:Catalogues of Scriptures
Bibliography
Ch’en, Kenneth. Buddhism in China: A Historical Survey.Prince-
ton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1964.
Liebenthal, Walter, trans. and ed. Chao lun, The Treatises of
Seng-chao: A Translation with Introduction, Notes, and Ap-
pendices,Vols. 1 and 2, second revised edition. Hong Kong:
Hong Kong University Press, 1968
Sharf, Robert H. Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism: A
Reading of the Treasure Store Treatise.A Kuroda Institute
book. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 2002.
T’ang Yung-t’ung. Han Wei Liang-Chin Nan-pei ch’ao fo-chiao-
shih.Shanghai: Shangwu yinshuguan, 1938.
TANYASTORCH
SENTIENT BEINGS
Sentient beingsis a term used to designate the totality
of living, conscious beings that constitute the object
and audience of the Buddhist teaching. Translating
various Sanskrit terms (jantu, bahu jana, jagat, sattva),
sentient beingsconventionally refers to the mass of liv-
ing things subject to illusion, suffering, and rebirth
(SAMSARA). Less frequently, sentient beingsas a class
broadly encompasses all beings possessing conscious-
ness, including BUDDHASand BODHISATTVAS.
The Pali nikayasand the Sarvastivada Abhidharma
differentiate the mass of deluded beings subject to
samsara into a hierarchy of five paths or destinations
of REBIRTHbased upon KARMA(ACTION): DIVINITIES
(deva), humans (manusya), animals (tiryak), spirits
of the dead (preta), and denizens of hell (naraka). An
alternative list of six categories, which was attributed
to the Vatsputryas and gained popularity in East
Asian and Tibetan Buddhism, places a class of de-
monic beings (asura) between humans and gods.
All of these beings reside in the three realms of ex-
istence (tridhatu) that comprise the entirety of the
Buddhist universe. The realm of desire (kamadhatu) is
residence for beings from all the categories, while the
realm of form (rupadhatu) and the realm of formless-
ness (aruypadhatu) are reserved for gods of higher
achievement. Among these paths of rebirth, the
denizens of hell, spirits of the dead, and animals are
regarded as unhappy destinies, while rebirth as hu-
mans and gods (as well as asura in the list of six) are
considered desirable, most importantly because it is
only through the human and deva destinies that en-
lightenment can be obtained.
Although the Buddhist message from its inception
held as its goal the liberation of sentient beings from
the cycle of rebirth, the concern for sentient beings
took on even greater urgency with the emergence of
the MAHAYANAtradition, since all called to this tradi-
tion’s bodhisattva vocation were entrusted with the
welfare and ultimate liberation of all sentient beings.
The compassion, transfer of merit, and cultivation of
UPAYA(skill in means) that are central in the cultiva-
tion of the bodhisattva path are all concerned with the
salvation of sentient beings. The Mahayana tradition
furthermore came to maintain that all sentient beings
possessed the buddha-nature, which meant that all in-
herently had the potential to become enlightened. In
later developments in East Asian Buddhism the pos-
session of this nature was extended to insentient exis-
tents as well.See also: Cosmology; Ghosts and Spirits; Karuna
(Compassion); Merit and Merit-Making; Tathagata-
garbhaSENTIENTBEINGS